Using examples, analyse the role of global interactions in the growth of environmental awareness.

Discuss the reasons for the global diffusion of consumer culture.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• Relevant global interactions may include flows of data and information, such as internet campaigning by civil society organizations. Also credit other types of interaction playing a role, including migrants or tourists who help awareness of issues to diffuse to new places.
• Campaigning may be linked to specific issues, such as transboundary pollution. Environmental awareness is a blanket term covering many issues. Other examples could include global climate change, biodiversity, deforestation, etc.
• Credit the idea that global interactions/globalisation/global development has given rise to environmental challenges (climate change, resource security) and that people are now aware of these issues.

Good answers might offer a structured (AO4) analysis of different types of global interaction (information, commodity flows) or different environmental causes (climate change, biodiversity). Another approach might be to analyse rising environmental awareness in specific contexts, eg the diffusion of environmental awareness to
people in different or new contexts (new consumers in emerging economies).

For band C (4–6 marks), an example of the growth of environmental awareness (such as an NGO campaign or film) will be be outlined and linked weakly with global interactions (such as ICT use, or the global trade flows which cause the issues).

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:

• either the role of a range of global interactions (such as data flows and trade flows)
• or two detailed examples of the growth of environmental awareness/ campaigns.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Consumer culture can be understood as a lifestyle in capitalist societies wherein the consumption of goods and services occupies a central role, in terms of people’s use of leisure time, aspirations, and even their personal identity construction. It is sometimes associated negatively with unsustainable/“throwaway” use of commodities/resources. It can also be associated positively with the progression of people beyond poverty and into the consumer classes. Global diffusion patterns include the growth of consumer classes in emerging economies.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• shrinking world technologies and the global diffusion of media/aspirations [Guide 3]
• financial flows from core to periphery regions [Guide 2]
• poverty alleviation, financial flows and the growth of new markets [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and the power of TNCs to build markets [Guide 5]
• migration, tourism and population movements [Guide 3, 5].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation might:

• critically discuss the relative importance of different reasons/global interactions which either aid diffusion of cultural traits or help to build incomes/markets
• discuss different traits of consumer culture, such as the diffusion of music, fast food, branded commodities, etc
• distinguish between the means of diffusion (eg TNCs) and the reasons why people are receptive to the arrival of “global culture” (eg state policies).

Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of places/countries where consumer culture has not diffused to / has been blocked, such as North Korea. However, some AO3 credit could be awarded for briefly drawing a contrast between liberal states and non-liberal states (such as North Korea) in order to demonstrate the high importance of liberal government as a reason for cultural diffusion.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant reasons/themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes/reasons from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Referring to named countries, analyse how people’s participation in information and communications technology (ICT) networks is changing.

Examine how far the social and environmental costs of globalization can be reduced without also losing its benefits.

The focus here is changing participation. This could refer to people’s participation as either consumers of ICT services or producers eg call centre workers. Candidates should be able to provide one or two examples of trends, developments and/or patterns of adoption at the national scale. They may also offer an overview of the changing global “digital divide”.

• “Participation” by consumers takes many forms, from social media use to remittance transfers.
• Information networks may include broadband internet or mobile/smartphone access.
• Some answers may focus on the increased participation of India and the Philippines in TNC production networks (outsourcing and call centres).
• Some answers may focus on growth on informal ICT services eg new phone app start-ups in Kenya.
• Involvement in e-waste management is a legitimate focus.
• Explanation of changes is not required but can be credited, eg more companies providing citizens with internet access; “middle-class” consumer income growth in many countries; low wages in outsourcing countries.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to systematically analyse changes at varying scales (eg provide a global overview and also one example of a changing national pattern, eg the rural–urban divide). Another approach might be to analyse changing social patterns of in inclusion/exclusion (eg for different income groups, women, the elderly).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of ICT use in one or more named countries, or an overview of the global “digital divide”.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis that includes:

• either detailed changes/developments in ICT participation in two contexts
• or some variety of ways in which people participate (eg covers changing patterns of consumption and production of ICT services).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Any aspect of environmental and social costs – and benefits – can be examined. Likely environmental themes include costs for the atmosphere, oceans or tropical rainforest. Social costs include worker exploitation or changes to society linked with the global growth of social media. Any action taken to tackle these costs needs weighing carefully against the benefits of global trade and development. 

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• climate change actions, possibly linked with issues such as the growth of food miles (air freight) [Guide 4] or the growth of polluting transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• growing environmental awareness fostered via NGOs [Guide 4]
• political (inter-governmental) responses to transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• the need for global action to prevent loss of tropical rainforest (linked with timber resource use) [Guide 4]
• calls for the regulation of global agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• recognition that a non-globalized lifestyle [Guide 7] is one that does not enjoy the benefits of economic interactions and flows [Guide 2]
• recognition of the many benefits resulting from the sharing of ideas, information and cultures [Guide 5], which might be jeopardized by anti-global measures [Guide 6/7].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that systematically examines different aspects of globalization that do or do not need managing to reduce their costs. Another approach might be to examine effects at different scales (eg comparing local developmental benefits of industrialization with the global costs of carbon emissions). Another approach might be to examine costs and benefits from varying perspectives (“local sourcing” might be viewed as having more costs than benefits by a farmer who wants to export food globally).

Answers that explain the costs and benefits of globalization but do little to actually address the question directly – that is, how far can these costs actually be reduced/tackled without also losing benefits? – are unlikely to reach band D.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Explain how one multi-governmental organization has led to a loss of sovereignty.

Discuss the interrelationships between global interactions and changes in technology.

Candidates would be expected to define their chosen multi-governmental organization as a grouping of nations, providing as their example the EU, NAFTA, MERCOSUR, ASEAN or others.

The example chosen will influence the answer, as some MGOs are merely free trade areas while others have a common external tariff, in the case of the EU a common market and fuller economic union with shared currency and freedom of movement for workers. Thus an answer based around the EU will most likely assert that sovereignty has indeed been lost, while one based around NAFTA may address the phrase “loss of sovereignty” more reservedly.

Accept a wide interpretation of MGO to include the IMF, UN, G20, NATO etc. However, such answers may be self-limiting and unlikely to gain the higher bands as it may be hard to display a loss of sovereignty.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

One view is that technology drives global interactions. Historically, improved transport and communications networks have enabled the flows that allow global interactions to occur [Guide 2]. Expect details about cheap air flights driving global tourism [Guide 5], the internet driving the growth of virtual communities (Facebook), spatial diffusion into new markets (for example, mobile uptake in Africa and Asia). Various forms of technology are a key factor explaining the growth in power and influence of TNCs (with their ability to “knit” places together as part of a productive division of labour, outsourcing or through their attempts to build markets around the world) [Guide 3]. Also credit references to “technology transfer” by TNCs and application of the shrinking world concept/time–space compression [Guide 2].

Another reciprocal view exists, which is that globalization drives technology. It is global consumerism [Guide 5] which drives innovation, outsourcing and the technologies needed to make it all possible. Demand from people for faster internet (HD TV on demand etc.) leads to large TNCs re-investing profits into research and development hubs. Some answers might even touch on the role of international conflict in driving military technologies (roots of the internet lie here). Or the need for diasporas to maintain communication [Guide 5].

To attain band E, there must be some acknowledgment or suggestion of an “interrelationship” rather than just “relationship”, and the reciprocal relation should be mentioned or strongly implied.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Accept a wide interpretation of “technology” (for example, global diffusion of medicare, farming techniques etc.)

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some good answers chose the EU to exemplify loss of sovereignty in many policy areas, including currency, human rights, immigration and other important aspects of governance. Pleasingly, details of the recent Eurozone crisis appeared in some scripts, with impressive analysis of the outcome for Greece that tackled head on the issue of loss of sovereignty.

Another successful approach was to choose the IMF as the chosen example and provide details of how the acceptance of structural adjustment programmes has represented a partial loss of sovereignty for nations like Tanzania for whom the receipt of much-needed loans has been conditional upon privatization of infrastructure and services (and all under the tutelage of EU-based consultancy firms).

Several examples were seen of very poorly prepared candidates writing about TNCs rather than MGOs; why they did not simply choose a different question is unclear.

Some excellent, wide-ranging answers thoughtfully examined how technology had led to, or accelerated, a range of global interactions. Candidates who understood the nature of the paper 3 assessment were able to plan a wide-ranging response that considered, in turn, political, economic, social and cultural interactions (showing in each case how ICT or containers and cheap flights assisted with global-scale processes and interactions). In contrast, some weaker responses merely listed (often for several pages) a timeline, or catalogue, of technologies before asserting that these all contributed to, or constituted, a shrinking world. While this showed good general knowledge of technology and gadgets, it was hardly the best way to tackle a synthetic geography assignment and tended to be a self-limiting approach.

Very, very few grasped the "interrelationship" suggested by the question. This ideally required some acknowledgment that technologies do not come "from nowhere" but are rather the outcome of powerful global actors actively seeking time–space compression in an attempt to increase product sales, turnover times, break into new markets and undertake corporate mergers. The role played by the research and development units of TNC headquarters (part of the international division of labour) was not appreciated. Thus the reciprocal profit motive that drives the technical creativity of TNCs such as Apple, Microsoft and Google was almost entirely neglected.

Analyse the increasing influence of one multi-governmental organization you have studied.

“Global interactions bring negative effects, rather than positive effects, to every part of the world.” Discuss this statement.

Likely examples include the EU, NAFTA or the BRICS group (which has had annual meetings since 2009). Also credit other examples of global governance with a multi-governmental character, such as the IMF, World Bank, G8, OPEC, NATO, OECD. Also credit the UN, or UN-sponsored agencies. An analysis of the influence of a specific global conference or agreement/protocol (climate change meetings in Kyoto, Doha, etc) could reach band D/E provided that it is explicitly shown to be the product of multi-governmental collaboration, organization or debate (if not, limit such responses to band C).

Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) influence the way citizens, civil society and businesses operate by relaxing barriers to certain types of global flow/movement (migrants, tourists, goods, capital, etc). A key issue is the diminishing effectiveness of political borders.

Alternative approaches might analyse the political influence that MGOs have over the governance of sovereign states:

• EU states must agree to adopt legislation from European Parliament (some may even know of the growing influence of Germany as a driver of EU policy affecting Greece during Eurozone crisis)
• IMF insistence on economic reform/adjustments in countries seeking loans, sometimes critiqued as a neo-colonial form of influence
• UN human rights rulings/war tribunals/peace-keeping operations
• NATO or other military alliances and their actions
• the macro-economic influence of OPEC during the 1970s (another approach might be to analyse why OPEC’s influence has ceased to increase since)
• the growing influence of the BRICS group (especially Chinese and Indian investment in African countries).

At band D, expect either description of some range of ways in which an MGO is influential, or some chronology/explanation of why its influence is increasing.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Three likely ways to discuss the statement (there may be others) are as follows:

• one way is to assess the net effect for a range of generic global concerns (“every part of the world” is thus interpreted as “the world”)
• another way is to agree that there are few positives associated with global interactions, notably environmental effects, and to then address the extent to which particular places, especially isolated/wilderness regions [Guide 7], have suffered
• alternatively, candidates may offer a place-by-place or regional audit eg compares/discusses South America, Africa, USA, etc.

Likely themes for discussion include:

• financial flows [Guide 3] and workplace exploitation, balanced against the alleviation of poverty
• cultural interactions can bring homogeneity but also bring new forms of culture, and hybridity [Guide 5] but this must be balanced against the loss of authentic differences and the ways in which adopted cultural traits enable “exploitative” or consumerist TNCs to gain leverage to penetrate new markets, etc
• migration brings a range of effects for host and source regions [Guide 5]; these should be carefully weighed and, ideally, a genuine evaluation given (rather than listed costs and benefits)
• environmental harm is likely to be a major theme [Guide 4]; some may argue that accelerated climate change stems from accelerated global interactions (accept this view), opening the way for a thoughtful discussion of predicted changes (including some beneficial ones, eg thermal growing season).

Good answers may provide some discussion of the extent of these effects (the interrogation of whether “every place” is affected) and may focus on “un-globalized” societies eg Amazonian tribes [Guide 7], ocean pathways for pollution and plastic-strewn coral atolls, Antarctic beaches, etc.

At band D, there should be either a detailed explanation of a variety of effects or a more critical discussion of the net balance/spread of effects.

For band E, expect both.

Some excellent answers were seen that addressed “influence” in multiple ways. Trade, geopolitics and migration were common themes that candidates using the EU or NAFTA explored. These were far and away the most popular examples, although a small minority wrote about Mercosur. Middle-ability candidates were sometimes shaky on important details, such as the number of EU member states.

Well-informed and well-revised candidates were likely to attain band D, as this was achievable by synthesizing a series of “positive” and “negative” case studies of almost any variety and concluding that global interactions have brought “mixed” results. Far fewer candidates displayed the ability to produce a nuanced evaluation of the statement that was more sensitive to the concepts of geographical place and scale. Where band E marks were awarded, candidates had generally progressed beyond a mere “costs and benefits” approach and were able to focus on the veracity of the statement that every part of the world is adversely affected by global interactions. They debated explicitly whether effects such as the spread of English language, or diffusion of plastic pollution in the oceans, are truly globalized phenomena or not.

Using examples, explain how financial flows transfer wealth between places.

“Glocalization is the most important reason why some transnational corporations (TNCs) have grown in size and influence over time.” Discuss this statement.

Financial flows (based on geography subject guide) include loans, debt relief/repayment, international aid, FDI, profit leakage and remittances (do not credit “goods”). The spatial focus could be the global core and periphery (although these terms are dynamic and contested and a variety of interpretations are acceptable, so long as named examples are also included). Some answers may additionally explain that there are legal and illegal (criminal, informal) mechanisms of money transfer; or can explain how “transfer pricing” and offshore tax havens are used by TNCs to transfer money between places.

Better answers may provide superior evidence/case study details of the wealth flows (quoting dollar values or percentage contributions to GDP, etc). They may also consider the varied directions of the flows (whether towards core/MEDCs or towards periphery/LDCs). They may even consider flows at the local scale too (eg may consider how international aid or FDI flows transfer wealth towards an LDC, yet do not necessarily reach the poorest people/parts of that state).

For band C, at least two financial flows must be described with some exemplification of one flow (either of places or the size/scale of the flows).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the major financial flows (may look at how a wider range operate; may provide much more detailed evidence for a smaller range)
• or some explanation of how some major financial flows can operate in different directions (may even consider different scales).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Responses would be expected to define glocalization, providing examples of its effectiveness as a strategy for bridging/building new markets [Guide 5].

A fully synthetic and evaluative answer should debate the statement with reference to other, possibly more important, factors. These could include growth in technology associated with globalization, for example, containers or ICT [Guide 2] or the growth of MGOs allowing easier access to markets, possibly triggering mergers and acquisitions (for example, Cemex and domestic cement companies within NAFTA trade bloc) [Guide 6]. The economic factors that triggered global shift (such as cheap labour) are important and the role of outsourcing could be discussed [Guide 3]. Other strategies employed by global brands may also be addressed that explain diffusion over time and space, such as the promotion of consumerism through brand advertising [Guide 5].

Some candidates may conceptualize TNCs as a broad category that includes energy companies and agribusinesses, which would not be expected to adopt glocalization to the same extent as branded commodity providers and the service industry (global banking).

For band C, at least one glocalization strategy must be described and its effectiveness commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either other more detailed reasons for TNC growth (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, using at least one other theme synthesized from the subject guide, probably the role of technology/transport)
• or some more explicit discussion of how glocalization helps some TNCs (perhaps not all) to develop their size and influence (eg cultural acceptance is gained in varied geographical contexts/new markets) over time.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Explain how and why glocalization occurs.

Examine the reasons for the resistance to globalization on either the national or local scale.

Candidates would be expected to define the term glocalization and good responses would benefit from using examples. Glocalization is a term that was invented in order to emphasize that the globalization of a product is more likely to succeed when the product or service is adapted specifically to each locality or culture in which it is marketed. The term combines the word globalization with localization.

The increasing presence of McDonald’s restaurants worldwide is an example of globalization, while the restaurant chain’s menu changes in an attempt to appeal to local palates are an example of glocalization. Perhaps even more illustrative of glocalization, for promotions in France, the restaurant chain replaced its familiar Ronald McDonald mascot with Asterix the Gaul, a popular French cartoon character. Similar adaptations are found with other products such as clothes and music.

To attain band D and above responses should clearly explain the term glocalization and are likely to include examples.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Resistance to globalization is in response to real or perceived negative change that has occurred or may occur during the process. Answers are likely to examine a range of reasons, including cultural (cultural contrasts, disregard for a particular religion or customs, cultural imperialism), political (domination by other nations or TNCs), economic (domination, possibly including conditions imposed by international institutions such as the IMF, economic leakage from tourism) and environmental (damage from resource exploitation or transfer of polluting industries and waste).

Reaction to the impacts of TNCs may be a catalyst for resistance. Some parts of civil society (including NGOs) may initiate or strengthen resistance, especially in regard to a particular issue. The growth of ICT and the media now means that resistance can be further strengthened at rates that were previously impossible. For instance, the diffusion of anti-globalist sentiment can be carried out via texting or mobile devices, to coordinate protest activity.

Resistance may be spurred on by a resurgence of nationalism. Resistance may also arise in nations that choose to isolate themselves or limit their involvement in globalization.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Using one or more examples, analyse the impact of diasporas on local cultures.

“Globalization is unstoppable.” Discuss this statement.

“Diaspora” describes a scattered community of common ancestry. Diaspora can be a product of migration or of territorial disintegration leaving a cultural group straddling different national borders. Likely examples for analysis will include: Polish, Chinese, Jewish, Indian, Irish, Scottish, English, Caribbean, Nigerian diasporas – but there are of course many other possibilities. Credit should be given to answers that provide clear details of the global diaspora pattern(s).

The preservation of migrant culture is a common diaspora trait, albeit in hybridized or fossilized forms, both of which may be explored, depending on the view taken of what “local culture” means. The adoption of minority diaspora traits by a host country culture (for example, US “melting pot” ideas) is another approach. 

The answer could discuss how the local culture of the origin country (for example, Ireland, Poland) may have been affected, for example, “fossilization” of the tourist industry. Another approach might be to address the great variability in local cultural forms for different parts of a diaspora (for example, comparing Jewish culture in the UK with that of the USA).

The approach taken will depend on the example(s) used and each answer should be credited in terms of its merits and should not be negatively marked if many of the themes suggested by this markscheme are not present but other valid content is provided. 

At the band C/D border, the focus on diaspora may still be insecure (for example, the concept of scattered population not fully understood), or the answer is more concerned with the impacts of a simple migration flow, but the focus on cultural impacts should be secure (alternatively, may have a good grasp of what diaspora is but fails to focus on culture).

At the band D/E border, expect some range of impacts to be addressed for a named and understood diaspora. At band E, the diaspora concept ought to be handled well (may consider cultural impacts for source and various hosts, or compare the cultural traits of different regional communities within the global diaspora).

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Globalization can be analysed as a purely economic set of processes or as a broader concept that embraces ideas of cultural and political change also. Either approach is acceptable. Globalization has accelerated over time as different indexes of globalization (Kearney, KOF) show [Guide 1.1] although the credit crunch/global slowdown may have shaken the faith of hyper-globalizers since 2008. Technology continues to develop, furthering possibilities for economic and social integration at different scales [Guide 2.1 and 2.2]. Companies are quick to exploit technical innovations and network growth seems certain to continue [Guide 3.3].

There are many other themes that can be explored which can be linked with the idea of globalization as a continuing trend, for example, lax labour/safety/environmental laws will continue to attract TNC operations to some places, further globalizing economic activity [Guide 4.2]. The economic clout of TNCs also means further growth of successful firms through mergers and acquisitions. The trend for MGOs is also likely for a variety of reasons [Guide 6.1].

The other side of the debate looks at possible reasons why globalization might be challenged/slow down (albeit temporarily) and there are internal and external pressures that could possibly be considered. The former includes the global credit crunch/sub-prime crisis and consequent collapse of key financial TNCs, a problem which subsequently escalated into a threat to sovereign states within the global core (Iceland, Ireland, Greece, and Spain). External threats include resistance movements (anti-globalization movements) as well as the fact that the strong Indo-Chinese dimensions to 21st century global economic growth could be seen as a threat to globalization as a project that is synonymous with Americanization.

Resistance could also be mounted against further losses to sovereignty and independence posed by the growth of MGOs [Guide 6.2, 7.3 and 7.4]. 

Responses must address both sides of the argument at band D. For band E expect balance and a proper, evidence-based evaluation of the statement.

A superficial understanding of diaspora allowed many to access band D. Candidates scoring 7 or 8 marks sometimes provided, essentially, an account of a single migration but with a focus that was appropriately centred on cultural and not economic impacts for source and host regions. Such candidates were usually able to preface their answers with an approximation of what diaspora means but segued immediately into a lengthy analysis of a single migratory destination, which was a pity. The inclusion of diaspora in the syllabus gives geographers an opportunity to explore how, say, Irish communities in New York and London differ from one another culturally – and from the ancestral culture of Ireland itself. There is also an opportunity to analyse a global population distribution – yet no candidates attempted to sketch a map or provide a table showing this population information as part of their introductory paragraph. Popular case studies included the Chinese and Jewish diasporas, albeit with little grasp of the global pattern. One or two looked at the Welsh community in Patagonia, which was an interesting choice.

Many candidates accessed band D by providing a basic, balanced analysis that synthetically employed some range of ideas from the syllabus, such as the power of TNCs and the growth of MGOs (used in favour of the statement) and China and North Korea’s decision to remain “switched-off” to varying degrees (used to argue against the statement). The best answers defined the concept – globalization – with enough flair to prepare the groundwork to deliver a superior, nuanced conclusion. For instance, by showing globalization to primarily be an economic process, but accompanied by political and cultural interactions too, an interesting conclusion can eventually be arrived at. One candidate argued that China’s leaders, while rejecting democracy and open-access internet (proxies for political and cultural globalization), have felt compelled to “opt in” to economic globalization in the hope of new wealth creation and poverty alleviation. This is exactly the kind of nuanced conclusion to the discussion that examiners were hoping to see.

Using examples, distinguish between cultural imperialism and cultural diffusion.

Examine the range of responses to the loss of national sovereignty that globalization can bring.

There is no universal agreement on the precise meaning of these terms, but expect a general distinction to be made between voluntary/consented changes (diffusion) and enforced/pressured changes (imperialism). In reality, there is a spectrum of pressure, and candidates may take different positions on this. All arguments should be judged on their individual merits.

Cultural imperialism denotes the projection of power – wherein a subaltern community or subordinate country experiences the “top-down”/forced imposition of cultural traits eg religion (missionaries), language, legal structures, dress codes, etc. Examples might include English language insistence in some Alaskan Inuit schools in recent times; or China in Tibet today; Indonesia and East Timor. Global domination of English – via the internet – is another contemporary theme, or American cultural hegemony (Hollywood, etc).

Cultural diffusion denotes a wider set of processes of cultural spread of which imperialism is just one avenue. Traits may be sought out and adopted voluntarily(eg Japanese teenagers adopting US music, film, etc). There are many avenues for diffusion, notably migration and music (via the internet). Adoption of Mexican diaspora cultural traits (especially food) by wider US society might be explored (or parallel examples elsewhere, eg UK, Sweden).

Political viewpoints may differ as to how the actions of TNCs should be categorized (the spread of consumerism may be seen either as a form of imperialism, or as diffusion) and different arguments should be judged on their own merits and in light of the evidence presented.

Good answers may touch on the growing projection of eg Indian and Chinese culture as exemplification, rather than being restricted entirely to historical European and USA superpower examples.

To access band C, both concepts/processes must be addressed and examples provided; and at band D, an attempt at distinguishing should be made, with specific examples of both provided (though the distinction may not be entirely convincing, because the concepts are sophisticated ones).

To access band E, the response should be well-balanced, well-articulated and well-exemplified.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Loss of sovereignty describes a state surrendering legislative power (eg can no longer act unilaterally when setting tariffs, migration controls etc). Loss of sovereignty could also be seen as a growing dependency on foreign-based TNCs, and foreign influences on national culture, etc. Some may argue the retreat of national identity, due to cultural diffusion [Guide 5] is progressive (“global citizen” ideas).

Reasons for loss of actual political sovereignty could include the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) or trade blocs, the actions of global organizations such as World Bank and IMF, the growth of international treaties and courts, as well as the excessive power of large global corporations [Guide 6]. Do not expect all of these themes to be covered, even in a good answer.

The economic logic behind MGOs may be appreciated and the benefits this can have for freer financial flows and migration flows, which may bring wealth to host and source regions [Guide 3]. Thus, some groups/companies/governments respond to globalization by embracing the benefits associated with MGO membership (weaker answers may simply cite the benefits, rather than explaining why some businesses show enthusiasm for MGO membership).

The negative response against globalization – such as resurgence of nationalism and opposition to migration in the EU – are likely themes [Guide 6] that can be extended through the analysis of the reaction of civil society and the organized rejection of this aspect of globalization, perhaps through political or religious pressure groups.

There is also the larger-scale idea of countries “opting out” of globalization (N Korea, Bhutan) [Guide 7]. These may determine what degree of sovereignty is ceded (not all European nations have joined EU, for instance).

Positive responses to globalization can thus be weighed against the fear of possible losses, costs and challenges. Any conclusion reached will be context-dependent. The arguments may be different for an account focused on the EU, in comparison to a discussion of NAFTA or MERCOSUR.

Band C answers describe a narrow range of responses that are linked to globalization or may explain why sovereignty is lost/threatened (but do not link this to the responses of particular actors). At the upper end of this level, there may be a simple, assertive conclusion based on a narrow synthesis of information.

For band D there should be a synthesis of several evidenced themes taken from the subject guide or a conclusion that reflects on a range of responses (perhaps weighing the net balance of positive and negative responses, or taking into account the differing perspectives of different actors). At band E, expect both of these elements (both synthesis and some proper evaluation).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This topic is clearly taught very differently by different centres. Some regard McDonaldization as a form of imperialism (in the neo-colonial mould), whereas others see it as a more pervasive form of cultural diffusion (on the basis that no-one is forced to eat a Big Mac at gunpoint). Either political view is fine, provided it can be justified and argued. Some good answers linked the diffusion/imperialism distinction with inequalities in power (that is, they contrasted an essentially one-way exchange, imperialism, with a two-way exchange of culture, diffusion). Another popular interpretation involved analysing cultural imperialism as the way culture is “rolled out” globally by powerful TNCs, whereas cultural diffusion was explained as being the “grass roots” embracing of traits belonging to migrant/diaspora groups by the wider population. Again, this was a fine approach to take if it could be argued coherently. In conclusion, there was no definitive “right” answer here; rather, there was an entire spectrum of “right” answers. “Wrong” answers, in contrast to these, typically tended to be self-contradictory (that is, the actions of TNCs were described as being both imperialism and diffusion, with no actual distinction made).

The subject guide (part 3, section 6) provides a teaching focus on geopolitical aspects of the loss of sovereignty (that is, the creation of MGOs) but also widens the geographical inquiry to encompass the power of TNCs. Thus, the cultural imperialism concept can be used in this wider context too, and many candidates made the connection. But it was a shame that some of those who chose this topic did not grasp the centrality of MGOs to the discussion at all, and knew little about the geopolitics of trade bloc membership and the mixed reaction of civil society. Some other weak responses did not answer the question directly and instead wrote only about how loss of sovereignty happens, not what the “range of responses” to this then are. Thus, they could write about English language spreading globally and threatening other tongues but did not, for instance, examine the response of either the French or Chinese government to this (setting quotas for the amount of foreign-language music, or films, respectively). In contrast, the best answers were properly synthetic and covered all of the key themes. Some showed very good current affairs knowledge of events in Greece and the Eurozone, or of “resource nationalism” (another reaction) in South America.

Explain how agro-industrialization contributes to environmental degradation.

“Cultural diffusion is a process that takes place in many ways but can be halted by many barriers.” Discuss this statement.

The term agro-industrialization describes commercial, large-scale agricultural operations (typically conducted by/on behalf of TNCs such as Cargill, Monsanto, Nestle, McDonald’s etc.).

Degradation may be mapped at local or global scales, and themes may include: carbon emissions/food miles, biodiversity losses, water extraction/water scarcity/water footprint issues, soil erosion/nutrient depletion, eutrophication, sedimentation, forest/mangrove losses, “virtual water” losses. There are many other possible themes.

To access band C, a range of ideas should be explained (expect at least two in some depth, or the briefer outlining of a wider range). For band E, expect some named locations to be mentioned, or different types/sectors of agro-industry to be identified, or good links to be established with the actions of named agro-industrial TNCs.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Pathways for cultural diffusion include the movements of workers and tourists who carry cultural traits with them [Guide 5]. A wide variety of traits could be explored, such as language, religion, arts and music, cuisine, fashion etc. The movement of commodities and the diffusion of the internet and films, orchestrated by technology, TNCs and global media corporations respectively, are other key ways in which “messages” are transmitted [Guide 2]. Military and imperial ventures could also be discussed. A “Trojan horse” strategy of contemporary glocalization [Guide 7] could be explored – wherein western cultural icons (for example, denim, burgers etc.) gain access to foreign markets by donning “cultural camouflage”). MGO membership – notably the EU – also aids cultural transfers by easing restrictions on a variety of flows and pathways for cultural diffusion (such as greater freedom of movement for people or goods) [Guide 6].

The barriers may be physical, political, economic or cultural and they can include nationalism and anti-globalization movements and sentiments [Guide 6 and 7]. A range of local responses could be explored that challenge cultural imperialism [Guide 5] or at least negotiate glocalized outcomes in ways that restrict the pace of cultural change (censorship of Google in China is one example).

To access bands D and E, the answer should be well balanced between coverage of the processes themselves and of possible barriers to their operation. The best answers may look beyond a “black and white” world (where processes of exchange either do or do not operate) and might critically explore ways in which global cultural exchanges are negotiated locally, resulting in partial or selective transfers of culture that bring into being new hybridized cultural forms (language, art, music or cuisine often show a “fusion” of different influences).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Many candidates reached bands C and D of the markscheme by providing a range of valid examples of degradation linked to some degree with "large-scale" agriculture. Often, the explanations (for example, of eutrophication) were in-depth. However, a precise understanding of – or exemplification of – actual agro-industrialization was at times lacking. Thus, a very good answer might note that "cattle ranchers producing meat for McDonald's have to carry out their activities on an enormous scale to meet rising global demand. This is resulting in mass removal of forest both for ranching and for growing cattle food, for example, soya in Brazil". (Incidentally, blanket statements were sometimes made which were not necessarily accurate – for example, deforestation in Brazil is now less due to cattle ranching and more likely linked to Brazilian agriculture's turn towards soya production.)

Candidates are, by and large, beginning to show good familiarity with cultural geography themes and concepts. Even weaker candidates could name-drop cultural imperialism and glocalization as important ideas to be reckoned with. Strong answers properly discussed the statement. For example, some good candidates queried whether glocalization should be seen primarily as evidence that globalization gets "halted" by cultural barriers (that require TNCs to make changes to their products); or whether the practice of glocalization offers proof that TNCs will always find ways to overcome cultural/religious/economic/political barriers. Good answers to this question often showed very good understanding of the synthetic aspect of the question and were able to weave their way around the guide fairly expertly.

Explain the causes and consequences of the international relocation of polluting industries and/or waste disposal.

“All societies, wherever they are, enjoy the benefits of a shrinking world.” Discuss this statement.

Polluting industries include manufacturing or mining operations with a large footprint and a polluting or dangerous character in the absence of regulation (examples might include Apple’s contractors in China). There are also international movements of waste (for recycling or disposal), for example, UK wastes to China (recycling) and European waste taken by contractors to Ivory Coast (dumping). The oil industry has brought polluting operations to many territories. While this is not strictly a “relocation”, the benefit of the doubt should be given to accounts of the expansion/diffusion of polluting industries (ie consequences of oil pollution in new deep water sites, for example, Gulf of Mexico, new sites in Niger delta, should be credited). Also credit eutrophication linked to agro-industry/agribusiness, etc.

The causes might include a quest for cheap sites (thus higher profits) and expect explanations to include details of labour costs, lack of red tape, etc. Weaker answers are likely to neglect causes, or provide simple assertions only (eg “there’s too much waste nowadays”).

Consequences for both physical environments (landscape, ecosystems) and people should be addressed. Some may be positive (eg recycling waste as a resource; FDI and its multiplier effects). Long-term litigation and quest for justice could even be a theme that is explored.

For band C, at least one cause and one consequence must be described (or a wider range of ideas listed) with some exemplification (of either one relocation or waste disposal example).

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the causes and consequences (do not expect balance; case study consequences are likely to be more detailed and may use more than one example/industry, though this is not required)
• or some explanation of how a single incidence of relocation/disposal can have more varied consequences for different places/people (eg origin and destination), though less supporting detail is given.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

“Shrinking world” (time-space compression) should be explained and related to different ICT and transport technologies [Guide 2]. Increased migration can be credited as a symptom of a shrinking world (because migrants make use of transport). Trade blocs/MGOs, eg EU, can play a supporting role (because the removal of border controls removes intervening obstacles to migration/transport).

Possible economic benefits derived from connectivity include: more profitable TNCs, with work opportunities for outsourcing locations and locations in receipt of FDI [Guide 3] especially when long view is taken (eg signs of factory reform in Bangladesh). A range of sociocultural benefits can be explored that relate to the sharing of global media, the growth of social networks, etc [Guide 5]. The ease with which migrant remittances can be wired home (or money transferred via mobiles) might be explored [Guide 5]. There are many other benefits that can be mentioned, for example, access to branded commodities [Guide 5].

There are, of course, cases where the statement may not be true and societies remain non-globalized/disconnected. Expect examples of indigenous people, isolated tribes, or variation within societies, for example, subsistence farmers [Guide 7].

Another counterargument would be the “one-sided” benefits of connectivity, wherein poorer connected places are exploited as low-wage production sites, possibly suffering environmental problems [Guide 4]; the sociocultural reaction against globalization, and movements aiming to limit shrinking world effects in some way, for example, increased food localism or the resurgence of nationalism [Guide 6, 7]. Indigenous people may be victims, not beneficiaries, of global interactions [Guide 5]. A current affairs focus might be on internet privacy/rights.

For band C, the shrinking world/globalization (may not distinguish) must be described and its benefits commented on.

To access band D, expect:

• either both sides of the argument are addressed (some societies/places benefit, some do not not), displaying some synthesis of a range of ideas, mostly (but not always) linked to the idea of a shrinking world/technology and transport
• or some more explicit discussion of how “benefits” are not enjoyed by all people within the same society/not everyone agrees what is beneficial (eg some perspectives see globalization as a sovereignty threat).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse the consequences of one specific transboundary pollution event.

“The negative effects of globalization on cultural traits have been overstated.” Discuss this statement.

A transboundary pollution event is one which has damaging effects for more than one country. It is most likely that candidates will analyse a major oil spill or air pollution event. “Event” strongly suggests a single dated occurrence but some credit should still be given to an account of a more pervasive problem (such as acid rain). Thus, for band E, the account must clearly relate to transboundary pollution (thus the pollution type is named, for example, sulphur dioxide or crude oil; affected states are clearly identified). Further, the temporal aspect should be addressed: if not a single event (for example, an oil spill) then a period (year or decade) must be identified (giving us a broad interpretation of “event”). An account of acid rain that is not geographically or historically specific should not move beyond band C. If both are there, band E is possible.

It should be made explicit who is affected and why the event is “transboundary”. The consequences may include: immediate ecological and environmental harm; longer clear-up operations; subsequent changes in national and/or international legislature; implications for the polluter (such as poor publicity and “PR nightmare” for TNCs).

The best answers may have a range of varied consequences (such as political/governance response) and will not simply focus on ecological damage.

Pollution events such as the Bhopal incident are not transboundary but may achieve band C if the concept of transnational has been well explored (idea of TNCs moving their pollution/unsafe operations overseas). The movement of recycling wastes to China may be marked in the same way (it is hardly an event, but some limited credit for the transboundary/transnational aspects of the case study could be given if it has been well written).

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The negative effects candidates should be familiar with include the threat of cultural homogenization associated with the diffusion of western, and latterly Japanese, cultural traits and branded commodities. In extreme cases this can be described as cultural imperialism [Guide 5]. The cultural production of homogenized landscapes may be commented on [Guide 4].

The question invites discussion of whether this first viewpoint has been overstated. The strongest responses will recognize alternative responses exist and globalization can be challenged/contested. They may suggest a variety of alternative outcomes, for example, hybridization/glocalization of branded products [Guide 7], or growth of diaspora music and art that draws on global influences [Guide 5]. More extreme forms of rejection also exist, such as throwing out TNCs and the IMF [Guide 3] or the resistance of nationalist parties to MGO membership [Guide 6]. At a local level, people may “opt out” and pursue strategies such as local sourcing of food (food preferences being a cultural trait) [Guide 7].

The persistence of diaspora traits is also clear evidence of cultural resilience (that is, the idea that cultural traits can easily survive) [Guide 5]. Equally, it may be argued that some cultures have remained free of global influences by choice, for example, Bhutan [Guide 7].

The process of cultural homogenization – if it exists – can be very complex and alternative viewpoints should be credited on their merits.

At bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected if the candidate has a strong, evidenced argument that mostly agrees or disagrees with the title.

A wide variety of cultural traits can be accepted, including any that are not specifically mentioned in the syllabus. Answers that rely heavily on just one or two case studies (especially if their relevance to contemporary globalization is spurious, such as early encounters between westerners and the Dani tribe) are likely to be too narrow to receive much credit for assessment objective 3 and are unlikely to progress beyond band C.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

A checklist for an appropriate example of a transboundary pollution event has three boxes to tick. Candidates should ask:

• Is it an example of human-induced pollution, such as sulphur emissions?
• Is the example transboundary? (While many used the recent BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill, few were able to describe any legitimate transboundary effects.)
• Can they describe their case study as an "event" – something of a clearly stated duration? (This might be a single event such as a nuclear accident, but could be a longer-duration event such as Kuwaiti oil fires, or even acid rain during the1970s or possibly ozone depletion in the early 1980s, whereas "global warming" since 1750 is hard to justify as an "event".)

The examples that worked best were Chernobyl (although this is a slightly antiquated example, its effects are still felt today) and the far more recent Japanese tsunami (which quickly became a transboundary event, with nuclear radiation detected on the US Pacific coast within two weeks of the explosion).

A few more sketch maps would have been useful here, as some case studies were poorly located and the spatial extent of the pollution weakly understood. Among weaker candidates, the interpretation of "consequences" tended to be quite limited and almost entirely short-term and overwhelmingly negative, even for events that actually led to substantial improvements in practice, regulations and legislation.

The provocative statement forced weaker candidates to attempt some sort of evaluation and to therefore present conflicting evidence, which was pleasing to see. The most popular themes were the modernization of indigenous peoples and the glocalization concept. Urban landscapes were sometimes included too. A few tackled diaspora but not many. Given that this is a geography exam, there was a disappointing lack of attention to scale. What is happening at a planetary level (loss of languages etc.) is very different from what happens at a local scale in world cities/global hubs, where diversity has never been greater or richer in many cases.

Overly historical accounts should be discouraged as the focus is meant to be contemporary globalization (which is widely accepted as either a post-war or even post-1980s phenomenon). The best responses were synthetic and covered five or six themes; in contrast, many weaker answers devoted two pages to the trials and tribulations of the Dani tribe and one page to the contents of McDonald’s menus, resulting in a mediocre performance overall.

Analyse the spatial and temporal pattern of adoption of one or more branded commodities.

“Global interactions have helped reduce disparities between places.” Discuss this statement.

There are spatial and temporal dimensions to the topic and both should be addressed. Only one example is required. If two examples are used then credit breadth rather than depth of analysis.

For band C, expect a description of the pattern of growth that contains some reference to a timescale and identifies countries or regions where the commodity/commodities have been adopted.

For bands D and E, expect a more thorough analysis that has good details or may additionally acknowledge the glocalized nature of the growth pattern or can identify growth boundaries (rather than implying the entire world has adopted the commodity), for example, may view poverty in parts of the world periphery as an obstacle to complete global diffusion. The case studies of diffusion may highlight key “blind spots” or anomalies where local resistance exists for cultural, political or economic reasons. For instance, there may be religious obstacles to the diffusion of McDonald’s beefburgers. Good answers may be aware of tariffs and trade bloc arrangements making it difficult for TNCs to gain entry to certain key markets.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The term “global interactions” should be explained; many approaches are possible. Some responses may do this by reference to one of the indices of interactions [Guide 1]. This could then provide a structure for their response. Alternatively, responses may focus on different types of interactions, such as trade, aid, flows of labour, currency etc. and structure their response by looking at different examples [Guide 3].

It is valid to examine disparities at any scale, including the local scale, provided they are linked to global interactions.

The strongest responses will make explicit links between the changes they describe (for example, poverty reduction in China) and specific global interactions (for example, China building wealth through global trade).

Some may argue that as global interactions have increased, core areas have expanded to include more people [Guide 1]. Expect most accounts to tackle the idea of a developing periphery, for example, NICs/BRICs/EAGLEs.

A broad interpretation of “disparities” should be credited, for example, gender or environmental degradation [Guide 4]. Expect some mention of “unfair” losses for people whose environment is damaged by global trade and transboundary pollution [Guide 4]. Also, local cultures may be eroded [Guide 5], while the political emasculation of small states by powerful TNCs might even be discussed in a creditable way [Guide 6].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected if the candidate has a strong evidenced argument that mostly agrees or disagrees with the statement. Greater attention to scale (tackling disparities both between and within nations) is also indicative of high markband attainment.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

It is clear that many centres are teaching detailed case studies of Coca-Cola and McDonald's as branded commodities (very few responses mentioned other branded commodities). It was common for the temporal pattern of adoption to be treated in more detail than the spatial pattern of adoption, despite the guide's wording (that gives equal weighting to both). Weaker answers failed to reference any named places, cities, countries or regions, or could argue for little beyond a basic diffusion "from MEDCs to LEDCs". Most responses looked only (and partially) at where the commodity was adopted. Fewer considered the delimitation of the pattern, that  is, could recognize the "black spots" where it was not yet adopted, either because it was not offered or was rejected (this strand of argument was actively looked for at band E, given the overarching rationale of this part of the course – as set out in the very first paragraph of part 3 of the guide - which encourages teachers and candidates to consider patterns of resistance, as well as adoption, in relation to global interactions).

"Disparities" is a wide umbrella term. The use of it here aimed to open the question up, thereby allowing a synthetic response ideally to be developed. The best answers appreciated this, and could demonstrate that not all disparities are income-based (the commonest interpretation). Stronger responses also included reference to disparities relating to race, gender, ethnicity and social status. Mid-level responses tended to be limited to a consideration of just two kinds of interaction, typically remittances and investment by TNCs. A third theme was usually introduced in better answers, such as trade interactions taking place within trade blocs. (More than two themes is very much to be to be encouraged if bands D and E are to be attained in a part (b) essay, following the "synthesis" criteria of assessment objective 3.)

Explain what is meant by cultural imperialism.

“Global interactions always lead to positive environmental change.” Discuss this statement.

A definition of cultural imperialism supported by further expansion is expected. One suitable definition would be: “The promotion and imposition of the cultural traits of one nation upon another; a consequence of globalization”. The supporting explanation should identify the following aspects of cultural imperialism, developing some of them further as shown below.

• Cultural imperialism involves cultural traits, their means of transfer, and their consequences.
• Cultural traits include language, consumerism, customs, morals, art, architecture, religion and education.
• The means of transfer include education, ICT, communications, the media, TNCs, trade and tourism.
• The consequences may include dilution or loss of indigenous culture and the imposition of traits of the dominant culture.

The best responses will incorporate examples, such as the “Japanization” of South Korea.

It is not necessary for responses to consider all aspects of cultural imperialism, provided that a range of traits and some mention of a variety of means of transfer is expressed.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

It is expected that better responses will consider both positive and negative effects of global interactions.

Positive consequences of global interactions might include the introduction of improved technologies by some TNCs and the work of civil societies (including NGOs such as Greenpeace). International environmental agreements, such as the Kyoto Protocol, and the spread of knowledge and awareness of environmental issues through education might also be discussed.

Negative consequences include the degradation of landscapes and creation of homogenized landscapes due to agro-industrialization and globalization of cityscapes.

Some international interactions are reciprocal, in that benefits at the source may be counterbalanced by adverse consequences at the destination (movement of polluting industries; transfer of waste).

The best responses accessing bands E/F will discuss both urban and rural areas and a range of economic activities, such as the exploitation of natural resources, manufacturing and services including tourism. They may also discuss examples at a range of scales.

It is not essential for responses to treat positive and negative consequences of global interactions in equal depth. A good discussion of one may compensate for a weaker discussion of the other.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Using examples, analyse the increasing uniformity of many of the world’s urban landscapes.

“Geographical differences in wealth are increasing, not decreasing.” Using examples, discuss this statement.

The focus is the character of the urban landscape, not city size.

“Uniformity” might relate to increased homogeneity of appearance, the growth of branded “commodityscapes” (clone towns), the trend towards a “global language” of modern architecture (“technoscapes”), the recurrence of some global diaspora groups in multiple world cities (eg, Chinatowns). The concept of landscape could also encompass the associated concept of soundscape (common music and languages that are heard in many places) and the ubiquity of English or Spanish words and brand names in advertising and public spaces in world cities and airports.

The analysis should go beyond mere description to offer some analysis of why this is happening (this might encompass the power of TNCs, superpower states such as the USA, the influential role of some architects).

Good answers may analyse the category of “urban landscapes” and might distinguish, using the concept of scale, between megacities, world cities and smaller towns. Another approach would be to analyse a trend towards uniformity in some – but not all – respects. There are many “mixed” urban landscapes, like London and Paris, which retain heritage alongside new technoscapes (in contrast to some cities, such as Doha and Dubai, which lack the same mix).

Do not over-credit answers which compare the size, function and sustainability of cities unless there is some clear reference to the taught elements of the paper three course which deal with landscape characteristics.

For band C (4-6 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of one or two ways in which recognizable place(s) are becoming increasingly uniform (eg branded logos).

For band D (7-8 marks), expect

• either a more detailed and well-exemplified analysis of the increased uniformity of urban landscapes
• or an analysis that contains explanatory elements (such as the power of planners and corporations, or demands of consumers).

For band E (9-10 marks), expect both band D traits.

[10 marks]

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on wealth differences. The question presents the view that these are increasing between places, but also requires consideration of an opposing view (that they are decreasing). Both should be addressed with appropriate supporting evidence. The economic development of BRICs/semi-periphery nations might be contrasted with the struggles that still prevail in parts of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Possible themes from the geography guide include:

• changes in the global core and periphery system/pattern [Guide 2]
• financial flows/relationships such as remittances/aid/SAPs/outsourcing, and their varied effects on people and places [Guide 3]
• the role of financial institutions (IMF, WTO) [Guide 3]
• multi-governmental organizations and the way they both ameliorate and accentuate disparities through trade agreements (and, in the case of the EU, through migration) [Guide 6]
• political isolationism and the effect of this on disparities [Guide 7]
• various reactions against global interactions and their economic impacts (for instance, local sourcing of food is not in the immediate economic interest of farmers in distant countries) [Guide 7].

Good answers are likely to discuss the geographic scale of the differences. Differences have grown within some countries like India and China at the same time as the global development gap between India/China and high-income nations has narrowed. Good answers may also discuss the ongoing (or perhaps even increasing) exploitation of workers, women or other social groups within countries that are showing progress, in terms of wealth/GDP/GNI, when measured at the national/aggregate level.

For band C (5-8 marks), expect a weakly-evidenced outline of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9-12 marks), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13-15 marks), expect both of these traits.

[15 marks]

Explain how global interaction may be measured.

Examine the effects of the development of communications upon international interactions.

Likely responses may refer to a named globalization index such as the AT Kearney or the KOF index. Any index chosen should be explained in some detail. For example, if the Kearney index is chosen its four key components should be named:

• economic integration
• personal contact
• technological connectivity
• political engagement.

The response should give some indication of how each of these is measured and is likely to provide an example. For instance, within the Kearney index, personal contact includes remittances/travel/telephone.

Responses should suggest the units for one or more parts of the index, for example, telephone – minutes of international traffic per capita.

Most indices of interactions are compound indices based on several components. Weighting factors are applied, a total score is calculated and countries may then be ranked.

To access band D and above, responses should include:

• a recognized index with its components
• an explanation for the ranking of countries
• named examples.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

The response should recognize a variety of kinds of communications (transport, telecommunications and the internet) and interactions (socio-cultural, economic and political). For example, the increasing capacity and speed of transport systems has facilitated the international transfer of goods through trade. It has also stimulated cultural integration through labour transfers and tourism. ICT has increased all aspects of international interaction, in particular financial transfers and business transactions. ICT has also allowed easier international exchange of ideas and political negotiation.

Answers attaining band D and above must focus upon international interaction, not just outcomes. Answers attaining band E must also include references to transport as well as ICT. Named examples are also expected at these levels.

Other approaches may be equally valid and should be assessed on their merits.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

In a global context, analyse what is meant by “core areas” and “peripheries”.

“Globalization involves the imposition of Western culture on the entire world.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

In a global context, “core areas” can mean developed countries (eg G7/8 nations) while “peripheries” include a larger number of states at varying levels of economic development and with varying involvement in global interactions.

• The core and periphery are interdependent geographical entities that form a system and are linked/connected with one another in varied ways.
• Links/flows/connections include global/international movements of people, money, ideas, goods and resources.
• In the past, a simple core–periphery system existed, that is, “MEDCs and LEDCs” or “the global north and south”. However, the emergence of a semi-periphery (NICs / emerging economies / BRICs) has made the system more complex.
• One view is that countries can ‘advance’ over time from periphery to semi-periphery and eventually gain core status (eg South Korea); another view is that the core actively reproduces the poverty of the periphery.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to use the concept of scale to inform the analysis, eg there may be recognition that some world cities/megacities (eg Lagos) are global hubs (cores) despite belonging to “peripheral” countries (eg Nigeria). Another approach might be to analyse the way countries like China and India could be seen as “core” countries when viewed from a peripheral sub-Saharan African perspective.

Answers dealing only with national-scale core–periphery patterns (cities and rural regions within a country) are unlikely to reach band C but should be marked positively if the work shows understanding of core–periphery relationships (AO1) and is well structured (AO4).

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a basic global core–periphery pattern.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either a range of global core–periphery criteria and linkages/connections
• or more varied global core–periphery patterns/scales/perspectives.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus here is “Western culture”, which is a debatable concept in itself (expect some definition to be provided in a good answer). The merit of the answer is likely to depend on the variety of different cultural traits and contexts that are examined, and also the quality of any counter-arguments (eg many may argue “imposition” is the wrong word; fewer may also argue that non-Western cultural influences have spread globally too).

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:

• telecommunication network growth (and thus cultural diffusion) [Guide 2]
• issues of landscape homogenization [Guide 4]
• cultural diffusion linked with flows of people and commodities [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5]
• TNCs, glocalization and the adaption, not adoption, of culture [Guide 5]
• the concept of cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• anti-globalization movements (focused on culture) [Guide 5]
• isolated groups/states unaffected by Western/other influences [Guide 7]
• diaspora groups in Western states which do not embrace Western culture [Guide 5].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of these or other relevant themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement, for example by evaluating the extent to which the adoption of Western culture is voluntary or forced. Another approach might be to examine the difference between broader “Western culture” and the narrower concept of “Americanization” (linked with a single superpower, the USA). Another approach might be to counter-argue the statement by evaluating the growing “imposition” of non-Western cultures on a global scale, eg Japanese, Indian, Chinese influences, or global movements linked with religion. Another approach might be to examine the extent to which culture is adapted/hybridized in local contexts, rather than simply “imposed”.

Polarized answers that deal only with Westernized and “non-Westernized” isolated states/people (N Korea or the Amish people) are unlikely to meet the critical evaluation criterion (which is required for band E).

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes (relating to culture) from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a developed, critical conclusion (or greater ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Please refer to Paper 3 HL markbands.

Using examples, analyse the concept of “loss of sovereignty”.

Examine how economic, technological and political factors may all influence the growth of global diaspora populations.

Loss of sovereignty is principally understood in political and/or economic terms. It encompasses the diminishing effectiveness of political borders and subsequent changes in flow of goods/capital/labour/ideas and perhaps the location of economic activities. These changes may be viewed by governments and/or citizens as the ceding of power/independence in potentially problematic ways.

The concept is most likely explored in relation to the growth of multi-governmental organizations such as the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. In the case of the EU, there are additional governance and currency issues to perhaps consider.

However, the concept of sovereignty is even broader than this in some people’s view, and may also be taken to include:

• the shift in power away from states and towards TNCs as a result of their economic size and dominance. This may be linked with the state’s loss of direct control over its own resources (oil, minerals)
• largely inescapable cultural changes such as loss of native languages and customs, beyond state control (and the associated concepts of cultural imperialism and the shrinking world)
• IMF/World Bank or other “top-down” assistance that comes with strings attached eg structural adjustment (SAPs)
• free trade and abandonment of protectionism could lead to changes which increase dependency on other trading partners.

Other interpretations of “loss of sovereignty” may be credited provided some change/loss over time features in the account.

For band C, two impacts of a powerful global/top-down force or change (such as an MGO, TNCs or information flows) should be described that have some bearing on a recognizable state’s independence/autonomy.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of exemplified impacts or a briefer account that conceptualizes what “loss of sovereignty” might involve.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the growth of diasporas – globally dispersed populations of common ancestry/ethnicity/religion. An effective examination should give consideration to all three, economic, technological and political factors.

The factors give rise to migration which in turn generates diaspora growth. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of diaspora populations must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons for migration between different countries).

Possible themes linked to diaspora growth include:

• active role of diaspora source nations in the growth of diasporas [Guide 5]
• shrinking world, including transnational family connectivity using ICT, or cheaper/easier means to disperse eg cheaper air flights [Guide 2]
• many of the political controls on global interactions can discourage migration and thus diaspora growth eg nationalism, anti-immigration rhetoric/policies [Guide 6] or controls on technology eg internet censorship [Guide 2]
• key role of economic labour flows as a global interaction [Guide 3]
• growth of EU has aided growth of “instant” diasporas within Europe due to freedom of movement [Guide 5]
• roots of globalization in empires of eighteenth and nineteenth centuries established patterns of post-colonial migration between global periphery and core [Guide 1] and eg growth of African diasporas in Europe/Americas
• global homogenization of landscapes [Guide 4] and consumer culture [Guide 5] may make different places become more familiar, so becomes less of a wrench to migrate overseas
• poverty might limit out-migration from the poorest countries of the global periphery [Guide 2].

Good answers that score highly at AO3 may additionally examine how the three different factors are interrelated (particularly within the context of the free movement of people within the EU), or may examine how the factors can both encourage or discourage migration. Another approach might be to examine explicitly the relative importance of the three factors in different contexts.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of all three factors with supporting details (do not expect balance), or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically examines the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using located examples, analyse the importance of outsourcing for transnational corporations (TNCs).

“International migration is the main reason for the loss of distinctive local cultures.” Discuss this statement.

Outsourcing is when a company hands internal functions to an outside company (a client relationship), for example US/EU clothing companies outsource to Bangladesh; ICT outsourcing to Bangalore/Philippines; BP outsourcing of Gulf of Mexico oil rig operation to Halliburton; McDonald’s outsourcing the management of its restaurants to local companies in some states.

Outsourcing overlaps with foreign direct investment to a large extent if the TNC invests or has an ownership stake in the company it outsources to. There is considerable overlap between outsourcing and other forms of FDI (“offshore” branch plant construction) in terms of the important factors that drive these practices:

• cheap labour (and other low costs eg health and safety)
• low taxes (including use of Export Processing Zones/SEZs)
• local supplier’s ability to source cheap parts/materials or greater familiarity with market (glocalization).

These generic factors should be credited, even if the candidate’s link to proper outsourcing (as opposed to other forms of FDI) is insecure.

Good answers may show awareness that some companies may prefer to keep their operations in-house or may only outsource non-essential operations, or are beginning to “re-shore” operations to reduce supply chain risks (Japanese tsunami, disturbances in Ukraine, Nigeria, Kenya, etc). Another approach might be to analyse how some types/sectors of TNCs (mining operations, agribusinesses) may be less reliant on outsourcing than manufacturers and retailers with large and complex supply chains. Another approach might be to analyse how some TNCs, such as Amazon and Starbucks, have been criticized by the governments of sovereign states for the claim that they have “outsourced” operations to different subsidiaries of their own company (in an attempt to avoid corporation tax).

For band C, expect some description of the reasons why it is important for TNCs to have different operations/activities carried out in different places.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of why different operations/activities are carried out in different places or a good attempt to analyse why outsourcing is important for different TNCs.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus might be how a range of reasons/factors, including migration, helps explain the loss (or not) of distinctive local cultures. Likely reasons include internet/media, tourism, rising wages in emerging economies and elsewhere/changing employment structures. Credit physical reasons too, such as suggested climate change refugees (Tuvalu, Maldives).

Alternatively, candidates might discuss the extent to which migration brings loss/harm or benefits to the world’s many local cultures in both source and host regions for migration. Rather than addressing other factors, the discussion can encompass a range of ways in which migration and diaspora growth impacts on local cultures, including their preservation (the cultural “fossilization” of diaspora source nations, for instance).

Possible themes relating to migration and/or local culture include:

• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• homogenous urban landscapes [Guide 4]
• tourism and the tourist gaze [Guide 5]
• cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• global media and TNCs as agents of change [Guide 5 and 7]
• nationalist movements [Guide 6]
• isolationism [Guide 7].

Good answers may discuss what is meant by “loss”: culture comprises many traits, some of which may persist while others are lost or change. Another approach might be to discuss the emergence of new hybrid or “melting point” cultures eg in World Cities: these may replace previously homogenous cultures but they can be just as distinctive as the more homogenous
cultures that were found there before.

For band D, expect a structured discussion, the central elements of which are migration, local cultures and possibly some additional reasons/factors. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Outsourcing is a term that still causes confusion and was poorly understood by a surprising number of candidates. Typically, they used vague language, such as: “outsourcing is when a country uses the work force in another country”. Outsourcing is defined by the geography guide as “The concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them. Outsourcing is done to save money, improve quality or free company resources for other activities.” Within the context of a geography examination paper (as opposed to business management), it may safely be assumed that a company which outsources its operations overseas becomes, by default, what we would term a TNC. The geography guide defines a TNC as “a firm that owns or controls productive operations in more than one country through foreign direct investment”. Significant global outsourcing relationships create a partnership (or global interaction) wherein both companies play a role in productive control. The client company may pay for training, or invest in the transfer of technology to the supplier company. The exam question also asked candidates to address the “importance” of the relationship for the Client Company, or TNC. Profitability was a key theme to explore here, linked with various low-cost factors of production. Well-developed examples were frequently supplied, usually Bangalore (call centres) or China (manufacturing). A few mentioned Bangladesh. Some of the best answers analysed the declining of outsourcing as a result of recent “reshoring” by risk-averse companies. Weaker candidates sometimes drifted off course and provided a lengthy cost-benefit analysis of outsourcing for India, rather than writing about the importance of outsourcing for companies.

The best answers were carefully structured around a range of possible factors, not just international migration, and used strong supporting evidence. Some of the strongest candidates offered a final substantiated judgment of whether migration is, or is not, the dominant factor. A minority of candidates misunderstood where the emphasis of the essay statement lies. They discussed whether migration was responsible for a loss, or gain, of culture. This approach was often hard to carry through and many floundered when it came to arguing coherently whether the presence of a diaspora community in a world city represents a loss, or gain, of “distinctive local cultures”.

Using examples, explain the factors responsible for the global spread of consumer culture.

“National governments cannot control global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Consumer culture may be described and exemplified as the spread of purchasing habits (branded clothes, fast food, music), or analysed in greater depth as the spread of a capitalist worldview wherein everyday life is commoditized and branded. Multiple traits of consumer culture might be identified, including:

• changing tastes in food (linked with retail and restaurant TNCs)
• fashion (linked with global media corporations)
• music purchasing (linked with online platforms such as iTunes and YouTube).

The key factors that can be explained include:

• the expansion of TNCs in a drive for new markets (may involve glocalization)
• the growth of global media and ICT (operating either as an independent factor or as a byproduct of innovation by TNCs such as Microsoft and Apple)
• the concept of cultural imperialism (linked either to the activities of TNCs or superpower states with “soft power” such as the USA).

Good answers may note that the factors are interrelated and reinforce one another (TNCs drive innovation, for instance). Another approach might examine how different factors might be linked with different aspects/traits of consumer culture (the spread of designer clothes can be related to container shipping and TNCs; the purchasing of online games and music can be related to ICT).

For band C, expect two factors to be described and linked with the spread of culture and/or commodities.

At band D, expect either more detailed explanation of a range of factors linked with the spread of culture/commodities or greater explanation of what is meant by “the spread of consumer culture”.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Management by national government may comprise migration controls, rules for FDI, terms attached to loans and aid, the issues of internet control and censorship. Successes and failure to control may be highlighted either between different countries, or different kinds of global interaction (trade/migration/information flows), or both.

Possible themes include:

• MGOs such as the EU and NAFTA as evidence the statement is correct and countries must now group together in order to try to manage global interactions in ways that reestablish some control [Guide 6]
• cultural globalization as an unstoppable force (or not) and national attempts to control flows of media and information [Guide 5]
• the power of global financial institutions eg IMF and its insistence that national governments institute reforms eg SAPs [Guide 3]
• migration issues and controls [Guide 3, 6, 7]
• government promotion of localism [Guide 7]
• transboundary pollution [Guide 4]
• government attitudes towards foreign direct investment and financial flows [Guide 2]
• military conflicts eg ISIS in the Middle East [current affairs].

Good answers may be structured around different kinds of global interactions (eg contrasts management of economic interactions and cultural globalization in the course of the essay). Another approach might be to discuss the effectiveness of the actions of different types of government (democracies and autocracies).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how national governments control/cannot control different kinds of global interaction. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced
conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

The best answers explained what was meant by consumer culture, as opposed to “culture” in general. Candidates were often well-versed in geographical terminology and could write with confidence about cultural diffusion and imperialism. In contrast, some candidates produced a “common sense” response that a candidate of any subject might have written. These answers focused on the power of advertising and branding, often at great length. Sometimes, this was sufficient for band C or even D.

This popular question allowed a wide range of themes to be synthesized. The change in the power of national governments was often thoroughly interrogated by the strongest candidates. At the upper end, there was frank acknowledgment that opting out of economic globalization is not a realistic strategy for any leading industrialized nation, but that degrees of control over migration and information flows are still achievable.

Using examples, analyse the benefits of globalized production for local societies.

To what extent is environmental sustainability incompatible with the growth of globalization?

The different local societies may be in producer or consumer nations/areas. States can be treated as "local" places within a global context.

Examples of “globalized production” can be taken from any sector of industry: agribusiness, manufacturing or service sector (eg the outsourcing of call centres). The benefits for producer nations/areas could be economic (including multipliers, cheaper mass-produced goods, etc) and/or social (eg improved work opportunities for women, increased family wages and thus educational opportunities for children). Also credit the idea of increased consumer choice (eg fast food).

There are also benefits for local societies/regions that are now consumer/post-industrial regions, following global shift/relocation of polluting industries. It can be argued that they have “re-invented” themselves as cleaner, higher-wage societies that additionally benefit from cheap imports of global goods from producer regions.

Do not credit benefits for TNCs, or disadvantages for local societies, as neither is asked for by the question. Any such material should be deemed irrelevant.

For band C, two benefits of globalized production should be described in relation to local society/societies in general.

For band D, expect analysis of either a wider range of benefits and/or recognizable local societies, or a structured account that conceptualizes some different kinds of globalized production.

At band E, expect all of these elements.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be whether environmental sustainability – the idea that future generations should enjoy the same landscapes, ecosystem services, resources, etc that are available for living generations – cannot be guaranteed if globalization continues along its current trajectory (with resulting environmental degradation).

Globalization is the growing economic interdependence of the world, accompanied by increased global flows of goods, people, capital, information. The “growth” of globalization is associated with high economic growth rates in emerging economies/NICs/BRICs and this may be commented on/highlighted as an area of particular environmental concern, along with the already large footprint of the USA and, to a lesser extent, Japan, Australia, NZ and EU nations. Some answers may lack focus on globalization/sustainability and instead describe how human activity in general results in problems such as acid rain, eutrophication and nuclear accidents (to name but a few). Such partial answers may still reach the band C/D border if they are sufficiently synthetic (see below).

Possible themes for synthesis linked to sustainability/globalization include:

• growth of core regions [Guide 1]
• growth of transport networks for people and commodities [Guide 2]
• ICT and information flows (may have lower footprint) [Guide 3]
• agribusinesses, polluting industries and waste movements [Guide 4]
• environmental awareness and green messaging [Guide 4]
• food miles and air freight [Guide 4]
• globalization of branded commodities (and implications for resource use and waste) [Guide 5]
• de-industrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• some local sourcing movements are rooted in anti-globalization/sustainability rhetoric [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may evaluate the extent to which some aspects of globalization are less harmful to the environment than others. Alternatively, a good inquiry of “to what extent” might take the view that growing global environmental awareness, or global cooperation on environmental issues and “technical fixes”, can ameliorate environmental degradation and may yet mean that long-term environmental sustainability is possible.

For band D there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that considers the extent to which the statement is true.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse how the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) can impact on the political borders of member states.

Contrast the impact of global interactions on the quality of life of different groups of people.

Analyse how the growth of multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) can impact on the political borders of member states.

Political borders are potential barriers to flows of goods, capital or people. Likely examples of multi-governmental organizations include the European Union (EU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), etc. Also credit discussion of WTO, IMF, UN, BRICS summit groups, OECD, G7/8/20, OPEC etc.

Other possible analytical themes include:
• Not all MGOs impact on the effectiveness of member states’ borders to the same extent. Only the EU allows full freedom of movement.
• Trade blocs like NAFTA allow movement of commodities across borders without the imposition of tariffs.
• Illegal migration / smuggling may render borders ineffective.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to analyse how the word “can” is conditional and suggests other geographical influences should be considered too, such as the effectiveness of border controls (eg US–Mexico). Another approach might be to analyse how political borders remain in place for states at the supra-national scale. MGO formation might even strengthen external borders eg external tariff / customs union / border policing of migration from external states outside the MGO.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect some weakly-evidenced outlining of the impact of one or two MGOs on national borders.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either two or more detailed MGO contexts
• or some variety of impacts on political borders (perhaps at varying scales).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Contrast the impact of global interactions on the quality of life of different groups of people.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus here is on quality of life, which is a highly debatable concept in itself (expect some definition to be provided in a good answer). The merit of the answer is likely to depend on the variety of global interactions that are conceptualized and/or the contrasts that are offered.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• isolated tribes and their quality of life [Guide 7]
• issues of multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• deindustrialization, labour flows and outsourcing and their impacts on employment in a range of different contexts [Guide 2 and 3]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs (cultural imperialism) and the reaction to this [Guide 5 and 7]
• environmental concerns and the health concerns associated with waste dumping, transboundary pollution and some work eg e-waste harvesting [Guide 4].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which contrasts a wider range of groups (isolated tribes; people in deindustrialized regions; societies benefiting from inward investment or outsourcing; global citizens; conflict victims). Good answers might take a more nuanced view than simply listing “winners and losers”. For example, one group might gain employment from global shift while also experiencing a negative change such as cultural dilution; this could make it hard to judge the net impact on their quality of life. Good answers might conclude that contrasts should be drawn carefully because “quality of life” and “global interactions” are complex ideas.

Answers which deal mainly with “benefits” for people, rather than addressing quality of life explicitly, may still reach band D if sufficient relevant themes are synthesized.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the Guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

This was the least popular question; candidates attempting it generally produced merit-worthy answers that dealt competently with the effect that the EU and NAFTA have had on the borders of member states (these were the most popular examples by a considerable margin). Done well, an analysis of borders/barriers to the movement of people and trade was sufficient to access the top bands provided good supporting details were provided of one or two organizations.  A large proportion of answers, however, were side-tracked into an analysis of the costs and benefits of MGO membership. Some barely mentioned the word ‘borders’ and wrote instead at some length about sovereignty and political self determination. Wherever possible, credit was awarded of course. However, some clearly knowledgeable candidates did not access the highest bands on account of their lack of focus. 

Candidates often failed to use the phrase ‘quality of life’ and instead wrote far more broadly about ‘winners and losers’ of globalization, or ‘positive and negative consequences’ of global interactions. Some material was creditable on account of the way in which quality of life was implied; for instance, the statement ‘remittances sent home may help children in the source country to attend school or gain access to improved health care’ (this implies improved quality of life for the children). Other material was less obviously creditable. For instance, the statement ‘globalization has helped China develop into the world’s largest economy but some African countries have done less well’ (in this example, it is less obvious what is being said about quality of life). A few answers focused exclusively on the lives of ‘non-globalized’ groups such as the Xingu tribe and Amish of North America. This approach did not work terribly well as candidates could offer little in the way of evaluation beyond the observation that these groups are unaffected so their quality of life remains unchanged. In contrast, the best answers often mentioned indigenous tribes but additionally evaluated the changing quality of life for a wide range of different groups, including consumer societies, producer societies, social network users and societies disproportionately affected by global environmental change.

Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of one named globalization index.

“Individuals, national governments and international organizations are increasingly resistant to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Expect either the KOF or Kearney index to be selected. There are other possibilities, for example, Maastricht globalization index; CSGR (Warwick); Ernst & Young.

Strengths include the multi-strand approach taken, recognizing that globalization comprises a range of processes that need to be measured, for example, KOF distinguishes between political, social and economic measures of globalization while Kearney uses four categories (economic, personal, technological or political integration).

Weaknesses can be conceptual (what is not included) or empirical (difficulties in collecting data and accuracy issues), for example, KOF’s measures of social globalization are easily critiqued, such as the “proximity” of data.

For band C, one recognizable index of globalization should be described in a way that implies it has merit (has different strands) and may state one or two basic weaknesses.

To access band D, expect:

• either more detailed knowledge of the chosen multi-strand index (with some attempt made to describe some weakness)
• or greater understanding of the weaknesses of economic and social data collection/comparisons in general (eg appreciates different perspectives on what is viewed as important; knows about flaws in survey methodology).

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Other approaches may be equally valid. Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions should be defined as a broad set of economic and sociocultural exchanges.

At the individual scale, a range of civil society initiatives can be discussed, such as Occupy/anti-globalization and, at the other end of the political spectrum, anti-immigration/nationalists [Guide 7]. However, some individuals continue to embrace the shrinking world [Guide 2] for a range of economic/cultural reasons [Guide 5].

Evidence of resistance at the national level might include individual government attitudes towards the arrival of global media corporations [Guide 5] or towards immigration and diaspora growth [Guide 5] or towards MGO membership [Guide 6]. However, governments also recognize the advantages of globalization, free trade and financial flows [Guide 5].

The concept of “international organizations” embraces MGOs [Guide 6] and international aid and development agencies responsible for financial flows, such as the politically-guided work of the IMF [Guide 2]. It is likely that candidates will choose to argue against the statement at this final scale.

Because the question specifies three scales of resistance, there are several routes to discussing the statement. One might be to offer some counterarguments (eg shows that some national governments embrace global interactions). Another might be to discuss the extent to which resistance is exhibited by individuals compared with governments and international organizations. Another might be to consider whether different kinds of interaction meet with varying strength or resistance (eg China embracing trade but resists information exchange). Each approach must be assessed on its own merits. However, a response that merely agrees with the statement cannot progress beyond the band C/D border.

For band C, resistance to global interactions must be identified at all three scales, with description provided of at least two.

To access band D, expect:

• either broader knowledge of a range of reactions, at some different scales (thereby allowing the truth of the statement to be discussed, eg by comparing negative reactions at different scales; or by comparing positive and negative reactions at some of the specified scales ie individuals, governments and organizations)
• or some explicit discussion of the way that different types of global interaction may prompt different kinds of reaction at one/some of the specified scales.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Analyse recent growth trends in the use of ICT for one or more countries or regions you have studied.

Examine the changing global pattern of sociocultural interactions, referring to core regions and peripheral areas.

There are many possible approaches to answering this question.

The focus could be on:

• actual ICT network growth/adoption trends (in terms of numbers of subscribers/device owners/intensity of use/places where there is uptake)
• growth of a single/narrower aspect of ICT adoption (eg mobile phone use, social networking, broadband provision)
• the growing uses of ICT in civil society (more people exchanging ideas, information, finance) and/or changing rates of social adoption.

Weaker answers are likely to provide isolated fragments of information about different places, or may offer a technology timeline with little geographical content.

Good answers may provide a clear geographical focus (perhaps named countries eg M-Pesa in Kenya or ICT outsourcing in India) and give some depth of analysis of how and why ICT uptake has changed, and who the users are.

At band D, there should be either detailed description of ICT growth/adoption trends or explanation of ways in which ICT is being used by people/groups/TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global sociocultural interactions can encompass migration and diaspora, social networking, cultural shifts (in spoken language, music, fashion, cuisine, etc), the spread of global media and the diffusion of branded commodities (all [Guide 7]). The response should examine a range of such interactions and may address reasons for their growth over time (technology, TNCs) [Guide 2, Guide 5].

A sound examination of global sociocultural interactions may illustrate the ongoing role that “core” regions/countries have in bringing cultural change to other places.

• concepts such as “cultural imperialism” or “soft power” may be employed and should be credited if used [Guide 5]
• it may be argued that these interactions have intensified due to technology and TNCs [Guide 5]
• done well, and with sufficient synthesis of themes, this approach, though simple, could reach the higher bands
• perhaps a global core/hub and periphery/semi-periphery framework will be used [Guide 3].

Good answers may explicitly address the changing pattern/new locations of global cultural influence, notably emerging economies such as the BRIC nations (India’s Bollywood film, Brazil’s Bossa Nova music, etc). Some may even consider the extent to which a long-established US–EU (core) hegemony is under threat.

Credit other valid interpretations, but material on financial interactions (eg remittance flows) should be marked as irrelevant or not answering the question. Some answers may lack conceptual grounding, but usefully employ a good range of anecdotal/documentary evidence that draws on a candidate’s own lifestyle, eg familiarity with South Korea’s K-pop phenomenon and Psy (a major music trend of 2012 that will be very familiar to the age group who will have sat the paper).

At band D, expect either explanation of a wide, detailed range of sociocultural interactions, or a more critical examination of a changing pattern over time.

For band E, expect both.

Those that attempted this question generally knew something about call centres in India, or the uptake of mobile phones in Kenya. The best answers addressed the stem phrase “growth trends” and understood that supporting data would, logically, gain more marks. Weaker answers tended to assert that “high” and “low” use of ICT could be seen in different countries around the world, due to disparities in economic development.

Some excellent answers were seen, when judged against their knowledge of different processes of sociocultural interactions, such as assimilation, glocalization or hybridization. Lively and informative supporting examples were provided, and centres are encouraged to suggest to candidates that they research local examples, rather than rely purely on textbook case studies of McDonald’s. Fewer candidates engaged quite as well with the word “pattern” which often resulted in a band D, rather than band E, mark being awarded. Interrelationships were sometimes hinted at but not fully explored (such as the tendency of Hollywood to increasingly adopt Indian, South Korean or Japanese tropes, for instance).

Analyse the relationship between globalization and the resurgence of nationalism in one country you have studied.

“Global interactions have made the world a richer place but not a fairer place.” Discuss this statement.

The resurgence of nationalist tendencies within states can link with international migration (notably the EU, also southern states of USA), a politicized loss of jobs to outsourcing (for example, USA to China) and broader concerns with cultural dilution (for example, the Facebook ban in Pakistan; state internet censorship to some degree can be found in 40 countries).

For bands D and E, the focus should clearly be on global rather than local interactions that do not reflect the dynamics of the world economy and/or its media (thus the labour migration of workers from Mexico to a global hub such as the USA is highly relevant; refugees seeking refuge from drought in a neighbouring country is not).

Nationalism itself assumes many forms – from overt racism/xenophobia to less sensational controls, for example, migration caps. Alternative interpretations of nationalism could include state-sanctioned hostile reaction to TNCs (for example, Chavez seizing assets of TNCs, or another “resource nationalism” case study) or clampdowns on media access sanctioned on national security grounds.

An account that lacks details of the manifestation of the growth of nationalism can still access the higher bands if the multiple “threats” brought by global interactions are well analysed. Discussion of only one country is required. In-depth analysis of a single reaction could reach full marks if the answer is developed, shows relevant understanding and uses terminology well.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Richer:

Global participation has increased over time and core areas [Guide 3] have clearly expanded since the days of the Brandt Report. Developing peripheries [Guide 3] are places where a large emerging middle class can be found apparent, for example, NICs/BRICs. This economic fact does not need to be contested/debated. However, it could be by suggesting the 2008 credit crunch caused the expansion of world wealth to temporarily halt/reverse. It is also possible to critique other notions of “wealth”, such as cultural [Guide 5] or ecological wealth [Guide 4], although, again, this is not a requirement.

Fairer:

This point does need to be debated, as it is controversial. Hundreds of millions have been lifted out of poverty in China although India is still a very divided society. It can be argued that global financial flows [Guide 3] have redistributed money on a regional level as world GDP has risen, with Asia, Brazil and some African (“African lion”) states clearly prospering at the aggregate level of GDP. But the benefits are still very uneven. Numbers in poverty in Saharan Africa have doubled over 30 years. Some financial flows (TNC profits, mining revenues etc.) are re-directed at core regions [Guide 3]. Good answers may debate the difficulties in finding a universally accessible definition of “fair” (or “wealth” for that matter).

There are also “unfair” losses for the environment [Guide 4] in many places (an account of transboundary pollution could be employed here) and for local cultures as languages are lost etc. [Guide 5]. There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits.

To access band D, the answers should be well balanced. For band E, there should be an evidenced conclusion that has critically interrogated the idea of “fairness” with respect to the changing distribution of the growing total amount of global wealth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Some very strong answers examined the phenomenon of nationalization as an expression of "resource nationalism" (wherein the state re-asserts control of strategic resource operations, such as oil refineries owned by TNCs, as witnessed in recent years in Bolivia and Venezuela). Other candidates provided a thorough account of the xenophobic reaction to multiculturalism in EU nations (seen as a proxy for, or subset of, globalization). Contrastingly, weaker answers showed little understanding of what "nationalism" means, or made simple assertions that racism is now a problem in the UK, for example.

Less confident candidates sometimes chose to simply agree that the world is indeed an unfair place and did not, or could not, offer a counter-argument, whereas the strongest candidates knew plenty about the pros and cons of the actions and impacts of the IMF, the World Bank and SAPs (from strand 3 of the guide) and could therefore mount a proper assessment of how the opening up to global interactions of China and India (among others) had impacted on aggregate levels of wealth as well as on distributions (at varying geographical scales). The best answers provided strong evidence to support their arguments and could offer a wide interpretation of "fair" that allowed them to build a wider synthesis of ideas.

Explain why the increasing needs of some countries for one or more raw materials are a cause of environmental concern.

“People living in the world’s most peripheral regions do not experience a ‘shrinking world’.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

AO1/2 Indicative content

Raw material(s) can include timber, copper, soya, oil, shale gas etc.

An account focused only on water should not progress beyond [6].

• The environmental concerns should clearly relate to the raw material chosen.
• There may be local and global dimensions (deforestation causing local degradation in addition to rising global carbon emissions).
• The countries/markets for the raw material can be identified.

Good answers may explain explicitly why there is concern over the increasing demand made by certain countries and may provide evidence to support this (eg China’s predicted growth in demand). Another approach might be to structure the explanation carefully around different categories of environmental concern.

For band C (4–6), an outline should be provided of either environmental problems/concerns linked with using raw material(s) or the needs of some countries.

For band D (7–8), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of

• either detailed environmental concerns linked with raw material(s) use/demand
• or the increasing resource needs for specified countries.

For band E (9–10), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content

Peripheral regions: this is a contested term and is open to a variety of interpretations, ranging from isolated tribes, to landlocked African nations, to India and China (in relation to the G7/8 global “core”). Credit the “political periphery” of North Korea also. Each approach should be judged on its merits in terms of supporting evidence and argument.

Shrinking world: this refers to the way distant places are perceived to be nearer due to falling transport times and the instantaneous nature of electronic communications and data transfers.

Themes for synthesis from the geography guide include:

• Even peripheral places are connected to global/regional internet/mobile networks.
• Peripheral places are connected to the core via flows of aid (including internet donations following disasters).
• The global spread of consumerism affects even peripheral places through the
  availability of imported food and goods.
• Media corporations have fostered widespread consumption of films and TV.
• Peripheral societies are visited by tourists.
• Exposure to global movements of pollution/waste may foster the sense of a shrinking world.

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might be structured around different strands of the shrinking world effect, eg use of transport, arrival of tourists, exposure to information flows
• might reflect critically on what is meant by “most peripheral”, who lives there, and the extent to which different groups of people in peripheral areas have differing experiences/perspectives on a shrinking world
• might reflect on the extent to which the world’s poor are sometimes compelled to travel as refugees or economic migrants, often considerable distances; while poor places are visited by representatives of the wealthy (charities, agencies), which provides some sense of “shrinking world” to both parties.

For band C (5–8), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant
shrinking world/globalization themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12), expect

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15), expect both of these traits.

Using examples, distinguish between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement.

“Due to global interactions, there is no longer a global periphery.” Discuss this statement.

Transboundary pollution (TBP) is pollution that crosses a national border accidently or inadvertently due to physical processes (atmosphere, currents, etc). Recent examples of transboundary pollution (TBP) include forest fires in Indonesia causing smog in Singapore; Chinese pollution reaching Japan; and radiation from Fukushima reaching the shores of the USA. Also credit acid rain (if clearly shown to be transboundary) and credit Chernobyl (1986). [The Gulf of Mexico oil spill was not a TBP event because only the USA was affected. Candidates using this example only may still attain band D according to other criteria, but ought not be awarded band E.]

Transnational waste movement (TWM) includes landfill in China originating in USA; European e-waste arriving in Accra (Ghana); ship-breaking in Bangladesh; Trafigura’s chemical waste from Europe arriving in Ivory Coast. This is a purposeful/intended global interaction/trade transaction. It is acceptable to view discarded household goods (eg clothes for charity) as a form of waste. Waste can also be a very valuable resource when recycled, so TWM can be seen as a positive interaction. Good answers are likely to provide detailed exemplification. They are also likely to make a better effort to distinguish (beyond simply employing comparative language such as “whereas”): eg TBP may involve the dispersal of point source pollution into multiple territories whereas TWM is a movement from one territory to another; TBP has negative impacts/costs money but TWM can also be positive/makes money; TBP is accidental but TWM is deliberate, etc).

For band C, expect some description of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance).

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a TBP event and a TWM (do not expect balance) or a good attempt to distinguish between them.

By band E, expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The global periphery may be defined as regions outside/beyond the core. Historically, some states were identified as being peripheral due to their spatial distance/isolation or lack of integration into economic and political systems. In 2015, this idea of peripheral states is only a very basic/antiquated starting point. A contemporary account might acknowledge also the existence of semi-peripheral states (middle-income countries) or the presence of important global hubs/cores such as Lagos in states that some people might still view as being part of a global periphery.

Another approach might be to discuss the extent to which various global flows and interactions (from international aid to social networks) have networked/connected the majority of the world’s states and a large proportion of their peoples. To give a counterargument, examples might be cited of isolated states and regions, from which we can infer the existence of a “global periphery”.

Possible themes include:

• economic globalization of low-income countries through trade, aid, loans [Guide 3] that may originate in EU/USA “core” countries but also emerging economies/BRICs/NICs [Guide 1 and 3]
• cultural interactions between countries in the core and periphery [Guide 5]
• isolated states eg North Korea, China (culturally); non-globalized tribal groups [Guide 6 and 7]
• the “shrinking world” effect that brings connectivity to previously peripheral places [Guide 3]
• branded commodities and global media that help to connect places through the growth of a common “core” culture (possibly modified by glocalization) which more and more places share [Guide 5].

Good answers may discuss differing degrees of “peripheral” states (perhaps including semiperiphery, non-globalized periphery). Another approach might be to discuss the multi-scale existence of core and periphery patterns (recognizing the global importance of world cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America). Another approach might be to discuss what is meant by “global interactions” in the context of this question (referring to a variety of trade flows, aid flows, migration flows, information flows, etc).

For band D, expect a structured discussion of how global interactions have contributed to the disappearance/persistence/modification of a “global periphery” of places/people. This should include either a synthesis of several well evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or nuanced and evidenced conclusion/evaluation of the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Most candidates understood clearly the difference between transboundary pollution and transnational waste movement. Relevant examples were used, although the detail and accuracy was variable. Very few used Fukushima as a case study, preferring to use the 30-year-old Chernobyl example instead. This is a pity and clearly goes against the ethos of the course which is stated on page 13 of the geography guide. The best answers understood the significance of the command term “distinguish” and were awarded full marks accordingly.

A handful of excellent answers showed deep understanding of how global interactions have modified the previously binary world system (the “north/south” or “core/periphery” of the immediate post-war period). They wrote about the evolution of a far more complex world, beginning with the rise of the Asian Tigers in the 1950s. Other strong answers dealt with the statement on a flow-by-flow basis and understood that a country like China could be regarded as being part of an economic core but had chosen to remain peripheral to social networks such as Facebook. Weaker answers tended to focus mainly on isolated tribes and the Sahel as non-globalized places. Done well, however, band D was still achievable through the use of this narrow approach.

Using examples, analyse how global financial flows can be affected by the actions of governments.

Discuss why anti-globalization movements/groups are found in most countries.

Financial flows include movements of money/credit/investment. Strictly, they should not include movements of goods/raw materials, although in reality there is some overlap (investments by TNCs underpin to flows of goods) and where appropriate the benefit of the doubt should be given.

National governments may directly transfer money via international aid programmes (bilateral or multilateral contributions), loans (including sovereign wealth funds) and investment (state-owned companies may purchase assets abroad). They indirectly affect financial flows through their policy-making. This can impact on migration (and thus remittances) and the investment patterns of TNCs (and thus flows of FDI, including investment, acquisitions, outsourcing). National governments also protect their economy from financial currency inflows/outflows. Money laundering is another possible theme.

Also credit use of multi-governmental organizations (and the way flows can accelerate with removal of tariffs/market expansion) and the intergovernmental nature of financial institutions/global governance (IMF and World Bank).

For band C, at least two financial flows should be described with some exemplification and a link established with government(s) (do not expect balance).

For band D, either more than two flows should be analysed and exemplified, or two flows analysed in a structured way that conceptualizes different types of influence (direct and indirect) or governments (national, MGOs, IGOs).

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on the ubiquity of resistance to globalization. The statement is not intended as a challenge and no counter-argument is required.

Different reasons for resistance need to be identified; the reasons are not the same for all countries. To achieve the highest band (a well-developed answer), details of one or more actual anti-globalization movements/groups must be included as part of the account (rather than just reasons why globalization might be resisted by people in general).

Possible anti-globalization themes (expect examples of actual movements/groups for some but not all) include:

• anti-globalization movements (named groups are expected) [Guide 6,7]
• migration, diaspora and multiculturalism [Guide 5]
• the homogenizing power of global media and TNCs [Guide 5, 7]
• opposition to migration (may have names of political groups/parties) [Guide 6]
• opposition to IMF/SAPs [Guide 3]
• environmental concerns (example of civil society group/movement) [Guide 4]
• cultural imperialism (may refer to indigenous movement/protest) [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism (and populist/nationalist movements) [Guide 6]
• deindustrialization and outsourcing [Guide 2,3]
• food miles and local sourcing movements (may name organization) [Guide 7].

Good answers scoring highly at AO3 may discuss globalization as a complex process, the effects of which are felt everywhere, albeit in varying ways, giving rise to movements/groups. Another approach may be to discuss how the veracity of the statement depends on what local effects of globalization are most strongly felt/perceived in a different locale (and perspectives may vary on this, even within the same locale).

For band D, there should either be a structured synthesis of several well-evidenced themes taken from the subject guide, or a properly evidenced conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) that critically discusses the statement.

At band E, expect both of these elements.

Using examples, analyse how foreign direct investment and glocalization are used by transnational corporations (TNCs) to help their expansion.

Examine the relationship between a country’s gross national income (GNI) and its level of participation in globalization.

Foreign direct investment (FDI) includes a range of different kinds of overseas investments made by transnational corporations (TNCs). These include: hiring outsourcing services (employing a third party to handle goods or services), establishing a “spatial division of labour” (building/buying company-owned branch plants or back offices in low-cost locations), mergers, acquisitions and franchises. Credit other possible financial outgoings (eg TNCs working alongside charities). Good answers should recognize more than one type of FDI, using examples.

Glocalization describes the adapting of a “universal” product to meet the cultural requirements of local markets (religion, taste, legal requirements may all vary from territory to territory). Glocalization is also linked to local sourcing strategies (using local suppliers), which may have political dimensions too (TNCs may be required to work with local partners eg in India). 

Candidates could comment on how geographic expansion is achieved through use of these strategies. TNCs achieve greater profits/market share through their geographic strategies, and can win local acceptance by embracing local people’s culture.

Candidates may additionally analyse how different strategies suit different TNCs (oil companies may not glocalize to the extent retailers do), or may analyse the weaknesses and not just the strengths of strategies.

Band C answers may describe examples of glocalization and/or FDI but with a lack of terminology and little mention of expansion (beyond asserting that it happens).

At band D, expect either a more detailed, exemplified explanation of both strategies (but do not expect balance) or some explicit analysis of how market expansion is achieved by particular TNCs.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Candidates will have studied global participation with reference to the Kearney or KOF globalization indices, which recognize economic, social and political strands of globalization. Therefore, accept a wide interpretation of what is meant by “participation” in globalization.

Possible themes suggesting a positive relationship between GNI and participation:

• well-known indexes (eg, KOF index) show high globalization scores for countries with a high GNI, as a rule [Guide 1]
• foreign direct investment by TNCs can bring many financial benefits that lead in turn to greater global economic participation for businesses and citizens (if incomes grow, allowing people to consume more globally-produced services or participate in tourism) [Guide 3)
• levels of sociocultural participation (an aspect of KOF) may also be higher for high-income countries [Guide 5]
• the role of remittances can be explored, as flows often take place between richer and poorer countries [Guide 3]
• poorer societies remain “non-globalized” eg, Amazonian tribes [Guide 7]
• poorer nations only experience one-way interactions – their assets are stripped by powerful nations/TNCs (raw materials, landgrabs) [Guide 4].

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• there are many types of global participation/interactions. People may participate in economic globalization but not necessarily cultural globalization (eg, Chinese factory workers with limited internet freedoms) [Guide 1]
• scale/disparities may be important. Some nations with higher GNI are “two-speed” societies: elite groups participate globally, not poorer groups [Guide 1]
• the relationship could be complex in the case of a migratory “brain drain” – remittances may boost GNI, but out-migration could reduce GNI too [Guide 3]
• the role of other aid/loans can be discussed – low GNI nations may be major beneficiaries of certain types of global financial flow [Guide 3]
• there are other possible exceptions/anomalies to the rule that can help lift a response into bands D/E.

At band C, some links between GNI/wealth and globalization should be described.

Band D should either provide a wider, detailed explanation of different links between GNI and participation or offer a more critical examination of what is meant by a country’s “participation in globalization”.

At band E, expect both.

While most candidates attempting this question were pleasingly familiar with glocalization, there was less familiarity with foreign direct investment (FDI). Some candidates explained why TNCs invest in foreign crime in order to reduce their costs (implying, perhaps, that such benefits might help a company’s future expansion). Only a few were able to demonstrate much understanding of how FDI flows operate beyond "building a factory". The best answers looked at outsourcing, while a tiny minority were aware of the geographical importance of mergers and joint ventures. Although McDonald’s is still the preferred case study of choice for candidates and teachers, most candidates remain in complete ignorance of how the company’s presence in India is in the form of a joint venture. This goes a long way to explaining why it has been so successful at glocalizing its products in India, due to the expert local knowledge of its Indian partner companies.

The command to “examine the relationship” (as opposed to “explain the relationship”) required candidates, ideally, to outline what underlying assumptions they would be making, preferably in their introduction. Weaker candidates generally established a simple positive correlation at the outset. Better answers suggested anomalies/outliers might need to be looked at too. At the very top end of the cohort, a small minority of candidates thought there could even be a reversal of the assumed relationship, whereby a wealthy country could maintain a degree of cultural isolation, whilst poorer countries sometimes become the global focus for international assistance and intervention, as in the case of Haiti. Sadly, most candidates did no more than assert that a strong positive relationship exists. To the credit of many, they performed a synthesis by suggesting that countries with a high GNI are likely to be home to many powerful TNCs, to be capable of cultural imperialism and to be highly attractive to economic migrants. Good answers sometimes made effective use of the KOF or Kearney index and demonstrated how some wealthy countries like the USA and UK score highly in all categories. However, it was a pity that more use was not made of interesting examples, such as China, which shows high participation in some ways but not in others.

Explain how rising global demand for one raw material has led to environmental degradation.

“The barriers to global interactions are increasing, not decreasing.” Discuss this statement.

Raw materials may include fossil fuels, ores, timber or food stuffs such as soya. Any unexpected interpretations, the validity of which is not clear, must be referred to a team leader.

• Located impacts for degradation could include the Niger delta or Gulf of Mexico (oil), Brazil (timber/soya), shale gas (USA), oil sands (Canada).
• Specific impacts might include loss of biodiversity or acid rain. A good account of impacts that lacks locational detail can still reach the higher band if the process details are good.
• The idea of degradation might also be linked to the lifecycle of the raw material/product including waste disposal issues.
• Good answers may be structured to show different scales of environmental degradation (local and global) or may look at transmission of effects (questioning whether degradation occurs at the source or destination/market eg coal burning).

Details of rising demand are required for band E, or can help candidates to access band D if they are lacking details about environmental degradation. Rising demand could be linked specifically with the growth of emerging economies/rising affluence/growth of new consumer classes. Some credit can be given for suggesting population increases, although rising demand is in fact related far more to changing lifestyles in China, Brazil, Indonesia, etc.

At band D, expect either a detailed description of some range of environmental degradation, or a clear explanation of how/why rising demand plays a role.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Global interactions may be defined as a diverse set of flows (economic, social, cultural, etc), potentially “setting the scene” for an essay which provides a nuanced conclusion that discusses the extent to which the statement is true for different types of global interaction.

Likely themes and barriers include:

• free trade versus protectionism (and the role trade blocs play); the focus will be loss of sovereignty and multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6]
• information exchange versus censorship, linked to growing importance of technology/“shrinking world” theory [Guide 2]
• “open-door” migration versus points systems and restrictions either in the context of economic migration or diaspora studies [Guide 3, Guide 5]
• some possible considerations of the now well-documented and growing risks associated with outsourcing/offshoring [Guide 3] – perhaps an “end of globalization” argument
• physical/environmental barriers may not be growing but are certainly falling due to overcoming of friction of distance [Guide 2]
• developed further, the migration and offshoring debates can be linked with the resurgence of nationalism and anti-globalization movements [Guide 6, Guide 7].

The double-edged effect of MGOs may be remarked on – namely, that they reduce barriers to internal exchanges while erecting barriers to external trade (eg through the adoption of a common external tariff in the case of the EU, thereby excluding some producers from access to European markets).

Good answers may conclude that the response to the question depends on the type of interaction that is being discussed (thus China is more open to flows of FDI than in the past, pre-1978; yet efforts to censor the internet have increased in line with its growing popularity). Some countries encourage economic interactions but attempt to curtail cultural ones.

At band D, expect either a detailed explanation of a variety of ways in which barriers are changing, or a more critical discussion of different kinds of barriers and interactions.

At band E, expect both.

Many mediocre responses were seen. Some very generalized impacts were described, with many candidates offering little beyond “pollution” or “global warming”. Also, the phrase “rising global demand” was glossed over in most cases, with candidates simply asserting that more oil or timber (the most popular choices) is needed today than in the past. Few could link the rising demand with important global development such as the rise of consumption in emerging economies. Higher level diploma geography candidates really ought to be in possession of supporting data in relation to the changing global pattern of wealth. One good starting point for updating content, already mentioned in a previous subject report for this paper, is this recent McKinsey report:

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/consumer_and_retail/capturing_the_worlds_emerging_middle_class 

A pleasing number of candidates who chose this question were able to offer a proper evaluation that gave nuanced consideration to what is meant by a “barrier” (poverty, languages, and political obstacles were all possibilities). Many grasped the paradox that trade blocs simultaneously increase and decrease barriers (according to who is a member of the bloc, and who is not).

Explain how global interactions can foster environmental awareness.

“International interactions always result in the homogenization of culture.” Discuss this statement.

There are many possible approaches. Responses may focus on examples of improved awareness in a single country or may consider the global realm of environmental management. Examples of the latter include response to transboundary pollution, such as oil spills or acid rain, and global climate change governance. They may also possess knowledge of global ecological/conservation initiatives such as Ramsar, WWF, and UNESCO.

The work of NGOs such as Greenpeace may also be explored. Candidates may examine the environmental messages that are sent as well as explaining the medium through which they are transmitted/type of global interaction (for example, internet, Facebook etc.).

Another approach is to argue that global interactions are often environmentally damaging and that we cannot help but be aware of them (for example, Gulf of Mexico oil spill or climate change).

Another response might look at how international movements of waste have improved environmental management for source countries who have simply paid to dispose of their problems elsewhere (for example, waste sent to China for recycling) and it may be noted that awareness of this trend is growing.

To access bands D and E, the response should do more than list green initiatives; it should also tie them to the concept of global interactions. Good answers may also ask whose awareness has been raised – civil society, corporations, governments etc.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The nature of international interactions should be made explicit. Pathways for cultural exchanges include the movement of workers, tourists, commodity flows, and military and imperial ventures, all of which can be accelerated by membership of multi-governmental organizations, such as the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN etc. [Guide 6].

It is not true that homogenization is an inevitable outcome. Possible obstacles include nationalism and anti-globalization movements, as well as a range of local responses that challenge cultural imperialism or at least negotiate “glocalized” outcomes [Guide 7].

There is plenty of scope to discuss arts, music, cuisine and other fields of cultural expression, and to investigate hybridized outcomes – or to look at the obduracy of cultural traits among diaspora groups, meaning that cultural diversity is not lost in global hubs such as New York or Toronto [Guide 5].

In support of the statement, expect TNCs to feature, with some mention of “McDonaldization” or a similar argument using Starbucks, Disney etc. as examples, or broad observations about the spread of English and Spanish perhaps employing the concept of cultural imperialism. The strongest answers may critique the notion of glocalization, and question whether the innovation of a “curry burger” for the Indian McDonald’s franchise is truly symptomatic of heterogeneity [Guide 3 and 5].

The role of technology and the internet in fostering homogeneity through the relation of the shrinking world/global village may also be a feature [Guide 2].

To access bands D and E, both sides of the argument should be addressed, although balance need not be expected.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

One striking general weakness observed here was that many responses were insufficiently focused on how global interactions can foster environmental awareness. Answers could often explain "why" (for instance, it was widely argued that global awareness of climate change is inadvertently fostered by the careless polluting actions of TNCs that have come to the public's attention) but could not address "how" (that is, the processes or pathways that link global interactions to environmental awareness).

Good answers sometimes looked at use of global media (old and new) by NGOs; global diffusion of films such as "An Inconvenient Truth" (and the follow-up globetrotting of Al Gore, celebrities and academics, in order to help raise awareness of important issues); or the idea of representatives of nations "interacting" at key global environmental meetings and conferences such as Stockholm, Kyoto, Copenhagen etc. "Environmental awareness" was equated to "hazard awareness" by a few; there is some legitimate topic overlap, but they are really not equivalents and such responses tended to be self-limiting. Overall, there were some very strong answers to this question, the most popular of the three on the paper.

There were some strong answers to this question that used a commendable range of appropriate examples. In many cases, the net was thrown wide, allowing plenty of credit for assessment objective 3 to be awarded as candidates synthesized a mixture of ideas dealing with TNCs, diaspora groups, nationalism, global media and more.

Weaker answers showed little understanding of what "culture" does, or does not, include (and had little idea of cultural traits, for instance). They also tended to see changes of culture in a very simplistic way. For example, many argued that TNCs or other global interactions "destroy" local culture. Most interpreted any change at all as being towards homogenization, even when the influence of incoming cultural forces was limited and a more logical and appropriate conclusion might have been that local culture had undergone "diversification" (pleasingly, some employed terminology such as hybridity or glocalization here). Very few could tackle the more complex yet very useful idea (in this context) of culture as a "performance", for instance, in the context of querying the nature of the "loss" when a local tribe retains its traditional clothing or dances/rituals for the tourist gaze but may simultaneously (and more or less invisibly) be adopting a modern/secular/consumerist worldview. This is a complex idea requiring thoughtful evaluation that sadly eluded the majority (but is in fact very important if ideas of cultural change and exchange are to be properly explored). A sensible conclusion reached by some of the best candidates was that true global diversity (in terms of different languages) has fallen (though offset to some degree by proliferation of new hybrid glocalisms). Whereas at a local level, some global hubs/core regions/megacities have witnessed an increase in cultural diversity due to the global interaction of migration. Toronto and London are extremely diverse world cities (however, the "melting pot" hypothesis suggests this hyper-diversity may be transient – over time, differences may lessen at this scale also, as different cultures intermingle).

Using examples, distinguish between local adoption and local adaptation of globalized cultural traits.

“International migration is the main cause of local opposition to global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Using examples, distinguish between local adoption and local adaptation of globalized cultural traits.

A cultural trait is an aspect of culture (way of life/social norms/structure of feeling/habitus). For example, language, diet, clothing, custom, religion. Allow a broad interpretation, such as the adoption of a branded commodity as part of “everyday life” eg McDonaldization / spread of Big Mac.

• Adoption of a trait can take the form of cultural imperialism (where one culture imposes its culture on another eg spread of English and Christianity under British Empire). Some commodities/brands are not sensitive to local conditions and are rolled out in a homogenous way across territories eg Lego.
• Adaptation involves the globalization of culture/commodities, resulting in a hybrid or fusion of local and global. There are many different variants of spoken French or Spanish around the world; localized expressions of the major faiths are found in each continent; food and music fusions are abundant.

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to distinguish the terms well, either through use of language or by drawing on more explicit contrasts, perhaps linked explicitly to different kinds of TNC (entertainment or oil, for instance). Another approach might be to comment on how the line may sometimes be blurred between adoption and adaptation, thereby challenging the assumption that it is easy to distinguish. While four billion people have adopted some form of English, on closer inspection there are distinct local adaptions such as “Singlish”. While some may see diversity in adapted McDonald’s menus around the world, skeptics might argue this adaptation is superficial and at heart a uniform product has been adopted.

Do not over-credit explanation of why globalization occurs / is necessary, as this is not asked for. Also, do not credit discussion of the costs and benefits of these processes of change.

Adaptation (globalization) is an aspect of the adoption process (globalization). This means that weaker candidates may have difficulty separating the two. Responses should be marked positively wherever possible if they are well structured and make good use of examples and terminology.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect either some correct but weakly evidenced outlining of both adaptation and adoption or one of these processes outlined well.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, evidenced analysis of
• either a wider range of examples (perhaps linked to different cultural traits, contexts or sectors of commerce/industry)
• or the distinction between adoption and adaptation (perhaps recognizing the overlap between the two terms).

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both band D traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus is on local opposition movements. The question suggests that multiple flows/interactions should be addressed, not just migration. International migration may be legal (EU), sometimes illegal (US–Mexico; North Africa–EU); it may involve skilled elites (sports/creative/skilled/professional) or the semi-skilled and low-skilled.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of:
• labour flows [Guide 3]
• opposition to IMF / SAPs [Guide 3]
• reaction against cultural imperialism [Guide 5]
• resource nationalism [Guide 6]
• EU migration issues [Guide 6]
• food miles and local sourcing movements [Guide 7].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3) three of more of these themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which discusses different local contexts: concerns with migration in the EU/US may not be shared equally in some LDCs, for instance. Instead, the “imperialistic” actions of TNCs/IMF/US may be of far greater concern eg opposition movements in Niger delta. Middle Eastern contexts could be discussed, including militant/jihadist campaigns against the West (ISIS/IS). Good answers may conclude that the veracity of the statement depends on the local context as much as it does on what aspect of globalization is under discussion.

Some responses may discuss the statement by counter-arguing that migration is supported rather than opposed in some contexts. This may be credited. However, responses which deal only with migration are unlikely to progress beyond band C because they have not synthesized a range of themes from the geography guide. For band D, there should also be some mention of one alternative cause of opposition.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly-evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect
• either a structured synthesis which links together several well-evidenced and well-focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or on-going evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Answers to this popular question were overwhelmingly coherent and correct. Adoption was viewed as a universalizing process bringing cultural homogeneity to places. In contrast, adaptation combines the general (a global commodity or cultural trait) with the particular (local preferences and beliefs). The result is a hybrid, or localized, culture.  McDonald’s was a very popular illustrative choice (it is perhaps a pity that teachers and candidates do not seek out more interesting examples as there is no shortage). Shortcomings in some candidates’ responses included:

• An overly narrow focus on a single example of international migration (an account of Mexican culture being adopted and adapted in the US falls short, strictly speaking, of providing an analysis of global cultural traits).

• Some confusion or insecurity over the meaning of ‘adaptation’ (some took it to mean forced as opposed to voluntary adoption, for instance)

Many candidates wrote extensively about the contemporary reaction against migration in the USA (Donald Trump’s proposed wall across the Mexican border) and throughout Europe (including the rise of right-wing politics in the UK, France and Austria). Some answers made excellent use of contemporary reporting of this topic, framed by the Syrian refugee crisis. Unfortunately, many candidates failed to broaden the remit of their answer to look beyond the migration debate. The question was phrased in a way which required candidates ideally to explore other reasons for resistance to global interactions, as opposed to varying perspectives on the merits or costs of migration. Responses reaching band D were expected to at least touch on some of the wider sovereignty issues which provoke EU or US citizens to voice their opposition to the EU or NAFTA.  A minority of excellent essays explored contemporary reactions against migration in some locales and additionally synthesized a range of case studies dealing with such themes as international trade, environmental degradation, resource nationalism, cultural imperialism and workers’ rights.

Using examples, analyse the reasons why some places have become international outsourcing hubs.

Examine the challenges that increased global adoption of information and communications technology (ICT) brings to different places.

AO1/2 indicative content:

• The outsourcing definition is included in the subject guide. Hubs are well-networked places within global networks.
• Global information flows have helped some places, such as Bangalore and Manila, to become hubs for international outsourcing centres (call centres). ICT and information flows are also an important reason for the growth of outsourcing of manufacturing and agriculture (allowing complex networks of supply and
  demand to function).
• In addition to ICT, other factors play a role and may provide reasons for the growth of outsourcing in certain places, such as government incentives and human resources (including literacy and languages spoken).

Good, structured (AO4) answers may provide detailed exemplification of outsourcing hubs (cities and districts rather than merely countries). They may analyse the reasons why particular locations have a comparative advantage over others in terms of ICT provision or other production costs compared with other places. Or they may be more selective in the way they analyse outsourcing by breaking this into constituent parts, such as manufacturing and services or agriculture sectors.

For band C (4–6 marks), expect weak outlining of the reasons why international outsourcing happens in a recognizable country or city.

For band D (7–8 marks), expect a structured, well evidenced analysis of:

• either the reasons for international outsourcing to specific places
• or different categories/sectors of international outsourcing.

For band E (9–10 marks), expect both aspects to be addressed.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

ICT refers to internet, broadband, mobiles and smartphones used by citizens, businesses and governments. From this arise multiple contexts for possible local challenges to be examined. Countries/national governments are creditable as places in addition to more local areas and neighbourhoods. The growing global pattern of adoption shows rapid uptake in Asia, Latin America and Africa (though at a slower rate than in Asia).

There are economic, social, cultural and political challenges and these vary according to the context.

Possible AO1/2 indicative content:

• the challenges of the shrinking world effect including unchecked flows of culture [Guide 2]
• global diffusion of culture is lined with cultural imperialism/loss of identity [Guide 5]
• loss of sovereignty for states/governments unable to control citizens’ internet access [Guide 6]
• the way ICT enables increased outsourcing and offshoring, which may have negative impacts [Guide 3]
• use of ICT by anti-globalization and terror groups (perspectives will vary on this) [Guide 7]
• the challenge of the digital divide and lack of participation in ICT (factors include income, age, literacy level), which in turn link to disparities in wealth at varying scales [Guide 3]
• e-waste is a product of growing ICT use [Guide 4].

Answers scoring highly according to the AO3 criteria for evaluation:

• might offer a carefully structured examination of different challenges in specific geographic contexts
• might offer a structured examination of the way different categories of ICT are affecting places and user groups
• might examine challenges from multiple perspectives, such as that of the state or its individual citizens (and in relation to people’s age, culture and identity).

Do not award AO1/2 credit for lengthy case studies of benefits derived from ICT, such as Kenya’s M-Pesa scheme: this is not asked for. However, some AO3 credit may be gained for any ongoing evaluation of the way certain challenges can – in part – be alleviated/offset/ameliorated by the benefits ICT nonetheless brings.

For band C (5–8 marks), expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant technology/shrinking world themes from the geography guide.

For band D (9–12 marks), expect:

• either a structured synthesis which links together several well evidenced and well focused themes from the geography guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation).

For band E (13–15 marks), expect both of these traits.

Using examples, explain the relationship between transport innovation and reduced friction of distance.

“Every country will eventually lose its distinctive national identity as a result of global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Friction of distance is the barrier to the exchange of goods, services, ideas created by slow/limited/expensive transport. Over time, increased connectivity through transport has reduced friction of distance (changing our perception of time/space barriers).

Candidates may explore the relationship through the use of a timeline, and perhaps a diagram, showing how transport times have fallen as a result of successive transport “revolutions” (bicycle, boat, car train, ’plane, etc). Also credit accompanying technologies eg refrigeration for perishables and intermodal transport. Candidates may be familiar with the associated geographical concept of time–space convergence (in other words, we perceive that we inhabit a “shrinking world” as distant places “feel” nearer). Done well, this could be sufficient for the higher mark bands.

A different approach might be to look at more detailed case studies of particular technologies and their application (eg the speed with which flowers from Kenya are flown to Europe; or the speed with which containers can bring manufactured goods from EPZs in China to the USA). This approach is sufficient for band D even if the “relationship” is not particularly clear.

Finally, the subject guide specifies that candidates should have studied speed and capacity changes for two types of transport network. They might draw on this as part of their answer. However, they should be careful to focus on the reduced friction of
distance as the network is modernized, or extended into areas that were previously “switched off” (and thus took a longer time to reach).

Credit may be given for some discussion of the role that telecom networks play in transporting data and information, “eradicating” the friction of distance altogether.

Band C answers are likely to describe some specific details of transport history, but with little/no development of “friction of distance” (besides saying it has lessened).

At band D, expect either a clearer explanation of the changing relationship over time (may use the concept of time–space convergence) or effective use of detailed examples to explain how transport connects distant places together with reduced
travel time.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be national (or group) identity although credit can be given for groups within a nation eg Amish (USA), Welsh (UK), tribes (Amazon). Discussion of a diaspora’s “national” identity (eg the identity of the Chinese in USA) may also be credited. Expect candidates to take a range of approaches and to hold a range of views about what factors or processes make a place distinctive/less distinctive.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• a range of issues can be discussed pertaining to cultural dilution/cultural imperialism/immigration/multiculturalism [Guide 5]. Different cultural traits may be discussed eg language, diet, music, religion, etc
• evidence may be cited in support of the proposition that increasing cultural homogeneity is unavoidable/irreversible, for instance international migration or the spread of branded commodities [Guide 5] or the homogenization of urban/cultural landscapes [Guide 4]
• sovereign states risk losing political autonomy due to their membership of MGOs (especially the case for the EU) or in relation to wealth/leverage of TNCs [Guide 6], influence of IMF/World Bank [Guide 3]. 

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• many countries have experienced a resurgence in nationalism/regionalism [Guide 6], for instance as evidenced by programmes of nationalization (Bolivia) or attempts to limit the dominance of English (in France’s case)
• there are instances of states or societies opting out of globalization/isolationism (eg, China’s stance on internet access; North Korea or until recently Myanmar; Amish communities in USA) [Guide 7]
• glocalized/hybrid outcomes can still be highly distinctive or unique [Guide 7]. 

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• national identity has many aspects, not all of which are threatened, eg, by MGO membership [Guide 6]
• other foci for identity may be becoming more important than national identity for many people, eg, diaspora identity.

At band C, some impacts on national/group identity/culture should be described and linked with global interactions such as migration, information flow etc. 

Band D should either provide a wider and more balanced discussion of the statement or offer a more critical discussion of what is meant by “distinctive national identity”.

At band E, expect both.

“Friction of distance” and transport innovation appears to be a well-understood and well-learned area of the curriculum. Even the weakest candidates were able to provide a short descriptive account of different modes of transport improving over time (in terms of the reduced time taken to move people or goods between locations). Many had learned the topic in advance in some depth, with accompanying locational details and data. This was not, however, always sufficient to reach the highest markband available. Some conceptual sophistication was also expected, such as clear, well-explained linkages with the concept of time–space convergence (or time–space compression). Alternatively, greater geographical knowledge was expected of how, in context, the friction of distance has lessened for specific global flows, such as commodity movements, thereby linking specific locales (such as the flower farms sited around Lake Naivasha, Kenya and the flower markets near Old Street, London, England). In contrast, band C answers often provided greater detail of, say, the technical specifications of jet engines, yet went on to merely assert that this allows “people” to “move around the world quicker”.

Many candidates performed a synthesis of the following topics: the influence of the McDonald’s corporation, national membership of trade blocs (especially the EU), the spread of English at the expense of native languages, the erosion of national traditions as a result of indigenous peoples’ contact with tourists, the dissemination of music and film through the internet, the growing homogenization of world cities, the prosperity of diaspora populations, and the resurgence of nationalism as a reaction to globalization (some candidates showed good contemporary knowledge of political movements in the EU). Arranged in a way that provided both support for, and rejection of, the statement, this was usually sufficient for band D. However, the sophistication with which these complex ideas were handled usually left a lot to be desired in work around the C/D boundary (see comments below on how performance could be improved in the future).

Explain how global core areas (hubs) can be distinguished from peripheral areas.

Examine the geographical consequences of international outsourcing.

Candidates would be expected to define “global core areas/hubs” as significant places that provide a focal point for global flows and activities. They are places where major diaspora groups may be found or may be identified as source regions either for contemporary cultural diffusion (for example, Seattle’s computer industries) or economic imperialism (for example, Washington). The scale at which hubs can be identified is open to interpretation. Small cities like Cambridge (UK) are hubs, but so too are megacities such as Sao Paulo and small states including Monaco and Luxemburg.

Arguably, entire nations such as Singapore and South Korea could be described as hubs at which point the term hub is almost synonymous with “core” in world systems analysis. But an appropriate “core and periphery” analysis in 2011 should not simply echo 1970s World Systems theory. Responses that do not acknowledge this and do not examine more than a simple “MEDC–LEDC” worldview (for example, by at least acknowledging a semi-periphery of emerging economies/NICs) should not progress beyond band C. (Within bands D and E, a good explanation of a fuller range of characteristics could compensate for a more limited description of the hub/periphery pattern.)

At bands D and E, answers need to be focused on how such places can be distinguished from other places and should not just assert that they exist. People and organizations in hubs will display high levels of global participation which could be measured using KOF or AT Kearney indices. They may also host major diasporas or can be mapped as source regions for key “globalized” cultural traits including language (such as English or Spanish). Mapping the head offices of large TNCs is another route of inquiry. Other routes could include a ranking of the competitiveness of financial centres, airports, ports, internet bandwidth availability, reliance on agriculture.

Other approaches may be equally valid.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Outsourcing should be clearly defined as the concept of taking internal company functions and paying an outside firm to handle them [Guide 3]. “Geographical consequences” of outsourcing can encompass economic, political, social, cultural, environmental, geopolitical and demographic themes at varying scales, for both host and source regions. Outsourcing occurs across all sectors of industry from agriculture to high-tech research. It can be a complex affair when strings of sub-contractors (both upstream and downstream linkages) are part of the picture.

Improvements in ICT are an important consequence (due to the need for enhanced videoconferencing capability etc.) and not merely a cause of outsourcing [Guide 2, Guide 3]. So too are trade blocs (MGOs), insofar as businesses will lobby for expanded tariff-free trade areas within which they may outsource at lower cost to themselves [Guide 6].

At a national and local (city region) scale, a key theme must be the reaction to loss of jobs in “source” economies [Guide 7], but growth for emerging “host” economies. Sweatshop workers may be cast as “victims” or beneficiaries of global capitalism in this account according to the case studies used (outsourcing includes “white collar” work in Bangalore, for instance) or the candidate’s political convictions (although exploitation needs to be evidenced and not simply asserted). TNC shareholders may be recognized as being among the real winners of outsourcing [Guide 3].

Environmental aspects are likely to be a popular theme, notably in relation to pollution [Guide 4]. However, high band answers should make it clear that the problems result from outsourcing (so unreliable sub-contractors are the issue) and not simply the internationalization of trade.

It may not always be clear whether genuine outsourcing or a firm’s own division of labour is being discussed (for example, as a cause of de-industrialization in developed countries). The benefit of the doubt should be given and a band D mark could be awarded to answers that are insecure on the precise meaning of outsourcing but are strong on the varied geography of global shift.

There are many possible approaches and these should be assessed on their merits. Depth might compensate for lack of breadth.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

This question produced a disappointing set of responses on the whole. Too many candidates merely asserted, wrongly, that a simplistic MEDC–LEDC divide still exists. There was next to no acknowledgment of globally important hubs such as Mumbai or Sao Paulo or other key settlements in emerging economies (or peripheral "LEDCs" as they were portrayed in most accounts, despite the BRIC group’s key role in driving global GDP growth today). Overall, the cohort showed poor understanding of contemporary economic geography and the global pattern of hub regions.

The use of the word "hub" in the guide, and in this question, ought to be a clear signal to centres that the core–periphery literature dating from the 1970s is not, in itself, sufficient background reading for the current global interactions course. Candidates who relied exclusively on this outdated framework found themselves erroneously describing a global system within which a global periphery, that includes China and India, continues to provide raw materials for the manufacturing firms found in developed countries. Examiners were left wondering whether, in other contexts, such candidates would be able to explain the rise of the Asian tigers and BRIC economies, or the de-industrialization of the old global core.

Thus a widespread lack of familiarity with the concept of emerging economies as new global hubs (which must surely come from examining the latest KOF or Kearney indices) was seen. There was little mention of the activities of the world’s financial hubs (which have triggered the global economic turndown that now surrounds us).

The concept of scale was clearly the biggest problem. There was a lack of comprehension that world cities in middle-income and low-income nations can nonetheless be global hubs. Effective teaching about globalization and global interactions needs to move beyond the nation state as the only frame of reference for patterns of wealth and connectivity.

Outsourcing is clearly defined in the guide. Many themes pertaining both to foreign direct investment and also outsourcing, such as financial flows, transboundary pollution and the factors encouraging the growth of multi-governmental organizations are scattered through the guide. Good candidates who were familiar with the synthetic nature of the part (b) essay mode of assessment rose to the occasion. The best answers came complete with plans that included positive and negative (or short-term and long-term) impacts, sub-divided into themed consequences such as economic [Guide 2/3]), environmental [Guide 4], political [Guide 6],  and social [Guide 7].

Well-informed candidates were thus able to highlight how global networks of outsourcing have helped drive the trend towards regional trade bloc integration. Elsewhere, outsourcing was seen as a factor that can be responsible for poor health and safety standards (some asserted, perhaps correctly, that this was the cause of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill). Outsourcing of back office functions to India was a popular theme, whose consequences were seen as being both positive (rising incomes) and sometimes negative (long and unsociable hours for call centre workers).

Some discussed the social reaction/anti-globalization movements against outsourcing (linked with de-industrialization, for example, of US manufacturing hubs). A few even argued that outsourcing has introduced new kinds of geographical risks for TNCs who find their supply chains disrupted by recent hazards such as Thai floods, Japan’s tsunami and Icelandic ash clouds. This is a truly synthetic theme and one that future candidates could be encouraged to explore further.

In contrast, weaker candidates were uncertain as to the exact nature of outsourcing and were clearly not able to differentiate between outsourcing and FDI (for instance, when discussing the relocation of US manufacturing to the Mexican maquiladoras). If a good range of consequences were developed, however, such candidates were still allowed to achieve a sound mark.